Excessive phospholipid peroxidation distinguishes ferroptosis from other cell death modes including pyroptosis.

Lipid peroxidation (LPO) drives ferroptosis execution. However, LPO has been shown to contribute also to other modes of regulated cell death (RCD). To clarify the role of LPO in different modes of RCD, we studied in a comprehensive approach the differential involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS), phospholipid peroxidation products, and lipid ROS flux in the major prototype modes of RCD viz. apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis. LC-MS oxidative lipidomics revealed robust peroxidation of three classes of phospholipids during ferroptosis with quantitative predominance of phosphatidylethanolamine species. Incomparably lower amounts of phospholipid peroxidation products were found in any of the other modes of RCD. Nonetheless, a strong increase in lipid ROS levels was detected in non-canonical pyroptosis, but only during cell membrane rupture. In contrast to ferroptosis, lipid ROS apparently was not involved in non-canonical pyroptosis execution nor in the release of IL-1ß and IL-18, while clear dependency on CASP11 and GSDMD was observed. Our data demonstrate that ferroptosis is the only mode of RCD that depends on excessive phospholipid peroxidation for its cytotoxicity. In addition, our results also highlight the importance of performing kinetics and using different methods to monitor the occurrence of LPO. This should open the discussion on the implication of particular LPO events in relation to different modes of RCD.

Nlrp3 inflammasome activation and Gasdermin D-driven pyroptosis are immunopathogenic upon gastrointestinal norovirus infection.

Norovirus infection is the leading cause of food-borne gastroenteritis worldwide, being responsible for over 200,000 deaths annually. Studies with murine norovirus (MNV) showed that protective STAT1 signaling controls viral replication and pathogenesis, but the immune mechanisms that noroviruses exploit to induce pathology are elusive. Here, we show that gastrointestinal MNV infection leads to widespread IL-1ß maturation in MNV-susceptible STAT1-deficient mice. MNV activates the canonical Nlrp3 inflammasome in macrophages, leading to maturation of IL-1ß and to Gasdermin D (GSDMD)-dependent pyroptosis. STAT1-deficient macrophages displayed increased MAVS-mediated expression of pro-IL-1ß, facilitating elevated Nlrp3-dependent release of mature IL-1ß upon MNV infection. Accordingly, MNV-infected Stat1-/- mice showed Nlrp3-dependent maturation of IL-1ß as well as Nlrp3-dependent pyroptosis as assessed by in vivo cleavage of GSDMD to its active N-terminal fragment. While MNV-induced diarrheic responses were not affected, Stat1-/- mice additionally lacking either Nlrp3 or GSDMD displayed lower levels of the fecal inflammatory marker Lipocalin-2 as well as delayed lethality after gastrointestinal MNV infection. Together, these results uncover new insights into the mechanisms of norovirus-induced inflammation and cell death, thereby revealing Nlrp3 inflammasome activation and ensuing GSDMD-driven pyroptosis as contributors to MNV-induced immunopathology in susceptible STAT1-deficient mice.

Nucleic Acid Induced Interferon and Inflammasome Responses in Regulating Host Defense to Gastrointestinal Viruses.

The gut bacterial and fungal communities residing in the gastrointestinal tract have undisputed far-reaching effects in regulating host health. In the meantime, however, metagenomic sequencing efforts are revealing enteric viruses as the most abundant dimension of the intestinal gut ecosystem, and the first gut virome-wide association studies showed that inflammatory bowel disease as well as type 1 diabetes could be linked to the presence or absence of particular viral inhabitants in the intestine. In line with the genetic component of these human diseases, mouse model studies demonstrated how beneficial functions of a resident virus can switch to detrimental inflammatory effects in a genetically predisposed host. Such viral-induced intestinal immune disturbances are also recapitulated by several gastrointestinal infectious viruses such as rotavirus and human norovirus. This wide range of viral effects on intestinal immunity emphasizes the need for understanding the innate immune responses to gastrointestinal viruses. Numerous nucleic acid sensors such as DexD/H helicases and AIM2 serve as cytosolic viral guardians to induce antiviral interferon and/or pro-inflammatory inflammasome responses. In both cases, pioneering examples are emerging in which RNA helicases cooperate with particular Nod-like receptors to trigger these cellular responses to enteric viruses. Here we summarize the reported beneficial versus detrimental effects of enteric viruses in the intestinal immune system, and we zoom in on the mechanisms through which sensing of nucleic acids from these enteric viruses trigger interferon and inflammasome responses.

General Strategies in Inflammasome Biology.

The complementary actions of the innate and adaptive immune systems often provide effective host defense against microbial pathogens and harmful environmental agents. Germline-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) endow the innate immune system with the ability to detect and mount a rapid response against a given threat. Members of several intracellular PRR families, including the nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat containing receptors (NLRs), the AIM2-like receptors (ALRs), and the tripartite motif-containing (TRIM) protein Pyrin/TRIM20, nucleate the formation of inflammasomes. These cytosolic scaffolds serve to recruit and oligomerize the cysteine protease caspase-1 in filaments that promote its proximity-induced autoactivation. This oligomerization occurs either directly or indirectly through intervention of the bipartite adaptor protein ASC, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (CARD), which is needed for the domain interaction. Caspase-1 cleaves the precursors of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18 and triggers their release into the extracellular space, where they act on effector cells to promote both local and systemic immune responses. Additionally, inflammasome activation gives rise to a lytic mode of cell death, named pyroptosis, which is thought to contribute to initial host defense against infection by eliminating replication niches of intracellular pathogens and exposing them to the immune system. Inflammasome-induced host defense responses are the subject of intense investigation, and understanding their physiological roles during infection and the regulatory circuits that are involved is becoming increasingly detailed. Here, we discuss current understanding of the activation mechanisms and biological outcomes of inflammasome activation.