Liquid crystal-based Mueller matrix spectral imaging polarimetry for parameterizing mineral structural organization.

Herein, we discuss the remote assessment of the subwavelength organizational structure of a medium. Specifically, we use spectral imaging polarimetry, as the vector nature of polarized light enables it to interact with optical anisotropies within a medium, while the spectral aspect of polarization is sensitive to small-scale structure. The ability to image these effects allows for inference of spatial structural organization parameters. This work describes a methodology for revealing structural organization by exploiting the Stokes/Mueller formalism and by utilizing measurements from a spectral imaging polarimeter constructed from liquid crystal variable retarders and a liquid crystal tunable filter. We provide results to validate the system and then show results from measurements on a mineral sample.

Assessment of oxygen saturation in retinal vessels of normal subjects and diabetic patients with and without retinopathy using Flow Oximetry System.

PURPOSE: To assess oxygen saturation (StO2) in retinal vessels of normal subjects and diabetic patients with and without retinopathy using the modified version of the Flow Oximetry System (FOS) and a novel assessment software. METHODS: The FOS and novel assessment software were used to determine StO2 levels in arteries and veins located between 1 and 2 mm from the margin of the optic disc and in the macular area. RESULTS: Eighteen normal subjects, 15 diabetics without diabetic retinopathy (DM no DR), and 11 with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) were included in final analysis. The mean [± standard deviation (SD)] StO2 in retinal arteries was 96.9%±3.8% in normal subjects; 97.4%±3.7% in DM no DR; and 98.4%±2.0% in NPDR. The mean venous StO2 was 57.5%±6.8% in normal subjects; 57.4%±7.5% in DM no DR; and 51.8%±6.8% in NPDR. The mean arterial and venous StO2 across the three groups were not statistically different (P=0.498 and P=0.071, respectively). The arterio-venous differences between the three study groups, however, were found to be statistically significant (P=0.015). Pairwise comparisons have demonstrated significant differences when comparing the A-V difference in the NPDR group to either normal subjects (P=0.02) or diabetic patients without DR (P=0.04). CONCLUSIONS: The arterio-venous difference was greater, and statistically significant, in patients with NPDR when compared to normal subjects and to patients with diabetes and no retinopathy. The mean venous StO2 was lower, but not statistically significant, in NPDR compared with diabetics without retinopathy and with normal subjects.

Alignment and temperature effects in liquid-crystal-based active polarimetry.

It is well known that in liquid crystal (LC)-based active polarimetry, alignment and temperature effects impact polarimeter performance. Practically speaking, when constructing a polarimetric measurement system from LC variable retarders (LCVRs), unavoidable alignment and temperature uncertainties will occur, leading to systematic error that propagates to the Mueller matrix. Typical calibration methods use only a single metric to assess polarimeter performance (the condition number) and often ignore the relationship between systematic error and specific Mueller matrix elements. Here we explore alignment and temperature effects in a Stokes generator and polarimeter, each consisting of two LCVRs, through a series of simulations to calibrate the polarimeter and measure the Mueller matrix of air. We achieve this by modifying an existing LCVR model to incorporate alignment and temperature effects. This new approach offers insight into employing LCVRs individually and associating particular Mueller matrix element error with specific LCVR effects.

Laser speckle contrast imaging: theoretical and practical limitations.

When laser light illuminates a diffuse object, it produces a random interference effect known as a speckle pattern. If there is movement in the object, the speckles fluctuate in intensity. These fluctuations can provide information about the movement. A simple way of accessing this information is to image the speckle pattern with an exposure time longer than the shortest speckle fluctuation time scale-the fluctuations cause a blurring of the speckle, leading to a reduction in the local speckle contrast. Thus, velocity distributions are coded as speckle contrast variations. The same information can be obtained by using the Doppler effect, but producing a two-dimensional Doppler map requires either scanning of the laser beam or imaging with a high-speed camera: laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) avoids the need to scan and can be performed with a normal CCD- or CMOS-camera. LSCI is used primarily to map flow systems, especially blood flow. The development of LSCI is reviewed and its limitations and problems are investigated.

Older drivers and rapid deceleration events: Salisbury Eye Evaluation Driving Study.

Drivers who rapidly change speed while driving may be more at risk for a crash. We sought to determine the relationship of demographic, vision, and cognitive variables with episodes of rapid decelerations during five days of normal driving in a cohort of older drivers. In the Salisbury Eye Evaluation Driving Study, 1425 older drivers aged 67-87 were recruited from the Maryland Motor Vehicle Administration's rolls for licensees in Salisbury, Maryland. Participants had several measures of vision tested: visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, visual fields, and the attentional visual field. Participants were also tested for various domains of cognitive function including executive function, attention, psychomotor speed, and visual search. A custom created driving monitoring system (DMS) was used to capture rapid deceleration events (RDEs), defined as at least 350 milli-g deceleration, during a five day period of monitoring. The rate of RDE per mile driven was modeled using a negative binomial regression model with an offset of the logarithm of the number of miles driven. We found that 30% of older drivers had one or more RDE during a five day period, and of those, about 1/3 had four or more. The rate of RDE per mile driven was highest for those drivers driving<59 miles during the 5-day period of monitoring. However, older drivers with RDE's were more likely to have better scores in cognitive tests of psychomotor speed and visual search, and have faster brake reaction time. Further, greater average speed and maximum speed per driving segment was protective against RDE events. In conclusion, contrary to our hypothesis, older drivers who perform rapid decelerations tend to be more "fit", with better measures of vision and cognition compared to those who do not have events of rapid deceleration.

Experimental validation of phase using Nomarski microscopy with an extended Fried algorithm.

Reconstruction of an image (or shape or wavefront) from measurements of the derivatives of the image in two orthogonal directions is a common problem. We demonstrate how a particular reconstructor, commonly referred to as the Fried algorithm, can be used with megapixel derivative images to recover the original image. Large datasets are handled by breaking the derivative images into smaller tiles, applying the Fried algorithm and stitching the tiles back together. The performance of the algorithm is demonstrated using differential interference contrast microscopy on a known test object.

Optical vortex behavior in dynamic speckle fields.

The dynamic behavior of phase singularities, or optical vortices, in the pseudo-phase representation of dynamic speckle patterns is investigated. Sequences of band-limited, dynamic speckle patterns with predetermined Gaussian decorrelation behavior were generated, and the pseudo-phase realizations of the individual speckle patterns were calculated via a two-dimensional Hilbert transform algorithm. Singular points in the pseudo-phase representation are identified by calculating the local topological charge as determined by convolution of the pseudo-phase representations with a series of 2×2 nabla filters. The spatial locations of the phase singularities are tracked over all frames of the speckle sequences, and recorded in three-dimensional space (x,y,f), where f is frame number in the sequence. The behavior of the phase singularities traces 'vortex trails' which are representative of the speckle dynamics. Slowly decorrelating speckle patterns results in long, relatively straight vortex trails, while rapidly decorrelating speckle patterns results in tortuous, relatively short vortex trails. Optical vortex analysis such as described herein can be used as a descriptor of biological activity, flow, and motion.

Quantitative Carré differential interference contrast microscopy to assess phase and amplitude.

We present a method of using an unmodified differential interference contrast microscope to acquire quantitative information on scatter and absorption of thin tissue samples. A simple calibration process is discussed that uses a standard optical wedge. Subsequently, we present a phase-stepping procedure for acquiring phase gradient information exclusive of absorption effects. The procedure results in two-dimensional maps of the local angular (polar and azimuthal) ray deviation. We demonstrate the calibration process, discuss details of the phase-stepping algorithm, and present representative results for a porcine skin sample.

Absolute blood velocity measured with a modified fundus camera.

We present a new method for the quantitative estimation of blood flow velocity, based on the use of the Radon transform. The specific application is for measurement of blood flow velocity in the retina. Our modified fundus camera uses illumination from a green LED and captures imagery with a high-speed CCD camera. The basic theory is presented, and typical results are shown for an in vitro flow model using blood in a capillary tube. Subsequently, representative results are shown for representative fundus imagery. This approach provides absolute velocity and flow direction along the vessel centerline or any lateral displacement therefrom. We also provide an error analysis allowing estimation of confidence intervals for the estimated velocity.

Older drivers and failure to stop at red lights.

BACKGROUND: Despite sensational news reports, few studies have quantified the rates of poor driving performance among older drivers and the predictors of poor performance. We determined the rate of running red traffic lights among older drivers and the relationship of failure to stop to measures of vision and cognition. METHODS: Multiple measures of vision and cognition were collected at the baseline examination of a population of 1,425 drivers aged 67-87 years in greater Salisbury, Maryland. Each driver had real-time data collected on 5 days of driving performance at baseline and again at 1 year. Failure to stop at a red traffic light was the primary outcome. RESULTS: Overall, 3.8% of older drivers failed to stop at red traffic lights, with 15% of those who ran the light having failed 10% or more of the traffic lights they encountered. A narrowing of the attentional visual field (AVF; the extent of peripheral vision in which objects are detected while attention is also centrally fixated) was associated with failure to stop at traffic lights at baseline and predictive 1 year later (incidence rate ratio = 1.09 per degree lost, 95% confidence interval = 1.01-1.16). Persons with smaller vertical AVF were more likely to fail to stop. No demographic or vision variable was related to failure to stop. CONCLUSIONS: Failure to stop at red lights was a relatively uncommon event in older drivers and associated with reduced ability to pay attention to visual events in the vertical field of vision.

Computer-aided assessment of diagnostic images for epidemiological research.

BACKGROUND: Diagnostic images are often assessed for clinical outcomes using subjective methods, which are limited by the skill of the reviewer. Computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) algorithms that assist reviewers in their decisions concerning outcomes have been developed to increase sensitivity and specificity in the clinical setting. However, these systems have not been well utilized in research settings to improve the measurement of clinical endpoints. Reductions in bias through their use could have important implications for etiologic research. METHODS: Using the example of cortical cataract detection, we developed an algorithm for assisting a reviewer in evaluating digital images for the presence and severity of lesions. Available image processing and statistical methods that were easily implementable were used as the basis for the CAD algorithm. The performance of the system was compared to the subjective assessment of five reviewers using 60 simulated images. Cortical cataract severity scores from 0 to 16 were assigned to the images by the reviewers and the CAD system, with each image assessed twice to obtain a measure of variability. Image characteristics that affected reviewer bias were also assessed by systematically varying the appearance of the simulated images. RESULTS: The algorithm yielded severity scores with smaller bias on images where cataract severity was mild to moderate (approximately

Urban and rural differences in older drivers' failure to stop at stop signs.

Our purpose was to determine visual and cognitive predictors for older drivers' failure to stop at stop signs. 1425 drivers aged between ages 67 and 87 residing in Salisbury Maryland were enrolled in a longitudinal study of driving. At baseline, the participants were administered a battery of vision and cognition tests, and demographic and health questionnaires. Five days of driving data were collected with a Driving Monitoring System (DMS), which obtained data on stop signs encountered and failure to stop at stop signs. Driving data were also collected 1 year later (round two). The outcome, number of times a participant failed to stop at a stop sign at round two, was modeled using vision and cognitive variables as predictors. A negative binomial regression model was used to model the failure rate. Of the 1241 who returned for round two, 1167 drivers had adequate driving data for analyses and 52 did not encounter a stop sign. In the remaining 1115, 15.8% failed at least once to stop at stop signs, and 7.1% failed to stop more than once. Rural drivers had 1.7 times the likelihood of not stopping compared to urban drivers. Amongst the urban participants, the number of points missing in the bilateral visual field was significantly associated with a lower failure rate. In this cohort, older drivers residing in rural areas were less likely to stop at stop-sign intersections than those in urban areas. It is possible that rural drivers frequent areas with less traffic and better visibility, and may be more likely to take the calculated risk of not stopping. In this cohort failure to stop at stop signs was not explained by poor vision or cognition. Conversely in urban areas, those who have visual field loss appear to be more cautious at stop signs.

Monte Carlo Green's function formalism for the propagation of partially coherent light.

We present a Monte Carlo-derived Green's function for the propagation of partially spatially coherent fields. This Green's function, which is derived by sampling Huygens-Fresnel wavelets, can be used to propagate fields through an optical system and to compute first- and second-order field statistics directly. The concept is illustrated for a cylindrical f/1 imaging system. A Gaussian copula is used to synthesize realizations of a Gaussian Schell-model field in the pupil plane. Physical optics and Monte Carlo predictions are made for the first- and second-order statistics of the field in the vicinity of the focal plane for a variety of source coherence conditions. Excellent agreement between the physical optics and Monte Carlo predictions is demonstrated in all cases. This formalism can be generally employed to treat the interaction of partially coherent fields with diffracting structures.

Poor sense of direction is associated with constricted driving space in older drivers.

The aims of this study were to determine whether perceived sense of direction was associated with the driving space of older drivers and whether the association was different between genders. Participants (1,425 drivers aged 67-87 years) underwent a battery of visual and cognitive tests and completed various questionnaires. Sense of direction was assessed using the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction (SBSOD) scale. Driving space was assessed by both the driving space component of the Driving Habits Questionnaire and log maximum area driven. Analyses were performed using generalized linear models. The SBSOD score was lower in women than in men and significantly associated with log driving area in women but not in men. The SBSOD score also showed a significant association with women's self-reported driving restriction. The findings emphasize the need to explore the role of psychological factors, and include gender, in driving studies and models.

Visual and cognitive deficits predict stopping or restricting driving: the Salisbury Eye Evaluation Driving Study (SEEDS).

PURPOSE: To determine the visual and other factors that predict stopping or restricting driving in older drivers. METHODS: A group of 1425 licensed drivers aged 67 to 87 years, who were residents of greater Salisbury, participated. At 1 year after enrollment, this group was categorized into those who had stopped driving, drove only within their neighborhood, or continued to drive beyond their neighborhood. At baseline, a battery of structured questionnaires, vision, and cognitive tests were administered. Multivariate analysis determined the factors predictive of stopping or restricting driving 12 months later. RESULTS: Of the 1425 enrolled, 1237 (87%) were followed up at 1 year. Excluding those who were already limiting their driving at baseline (n = 35), 1.5% (18/1202) had stopped and 3.4% (41/1202) had restricted their driving. The women (odds ratio [OR], 4.01; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.05-8.20) and those who prefer to be driven (OR, 3.91; 95% CI, 1.91-8.00) were more likely to stop or restrict driving. Depressive symptoms increased likelihood of restricting or stopping driving (OR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.009-1.16 per point Geriatric Depression Scale). Slow visual scanning and psychomotor speed (Trail Making Test, Part A: OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01-1.03), poor visuoconstructional skills (Beery-Buktenica Test of Visual Motor Integration: OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.05-1.25), and reduced contrast sensitivity (OR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.03-1.28) predicted stopping or reducing driving. Visual field loss and visual attention were not associated. The effect of vision on changing driving behavior was partially mediated by cognition, depression, and baseline driving preferences. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, contrast sensitivity and cognitive function were independently associated with incident cessation or restriction of driving space. These data suggest drivers with functional deficits make difficult decisions to restrict or stop driving.

Detrimental effects of speckle-pixel size matching in laser speckle contrast imaging.

Through a series of simulations and experiments, we demonstrate that the frequently cited criterion of matching speckle size to detector element (pixel) size in laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) has the detrimental effect of reducing the contrast and thereby decreasing the variation in the laser speckle contrast image. Unlike quasi-elastic light scattering, where this matching condition has been shown to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio, in LSCI, the minimum speckle size must exceed the Nyquist criterion in order to maximize the contrast of the speckle patterns.

Monte Carlo modeling of spatial coherence: free-space diffraction.

We present a Monte Carlo method for propagating partially coherent fields through complex deterministic optical systems. A Gaussian copula is used to synthesize a random source with an arbitrary spatial coherence function. Physical optics and Monte Carlo predictions of the first- and second-order statistics of the field are shown for coherent and partially coherent sources for free-space propagation, imaging using a binary Fresnel zone plate, and propagation through a limiting aperture. Excellent agreement between the physical optics and Monte Carlo predictions is demonstrated in all cases. Convergence criteria are presented for judging the quality of the Monte Carlo predictions.

Can laser speckle flowmetry be made a quantitative tool?

The ultimate objective of laser speckle flowmetry (and a host of specific implementations such as laser speckle contrast analysis, LASCA or LSCA; laser speckle spatial contrast analysis, LSSCA; laser speckle temporal contrast analysis, LSTCA; etc.) is to infer flow velocity from the observed speckle contrast. Despite numerous demonstrations over the past 25 years of such a qualitative relationship, no convincing quantitative relationship has been proven. One reason is a persistent mathematical error that has been propagated by a host of workers; another is a misconception about the proper autocorrelation function for ordered flow. Still another hindrance has been uncertainty in the specific relationship between decorrelation time and local flow velocity. Herein we attempt to dispel some of these errors and misconceptions with the intent of turning laser speckle flowmetry into a quantitative tool. Specifically we review the underlying theory, explore the impact of various analytic models for relating measured intensity fluctuations to scatterer motion, and address some of the practical issues associated with the measurement and subsequent data processing.

Measurement of oxygen saturation in the retina with a spectroscopic sensitive multi aperture camera.

We introduce a new multi aperture system capable of capturing six identical images of the human fundus at six different spectral bands. The system is based on a lenslet array architecture and is well suited for spectroscopy application. The multi-aperture system was interfaced with a fundus camera to acquire spectroscopic sensitive images of the retina vessel and ultimately to calculate oxygen saturation in the retina in vivo. In vitro testing showed that the system is able to accurately reconstruct curves of partially oxygenated hemoglobin. In vivo testing on healthy volunteers was conducted and yielded results of oxygen saturation similar to the one reported in the literature, with arterial SO(2) approximately 0.95 and venous SO(2) approximately 0.5.

Statistics of local speckle contrast.

In describing the first-order properties of laser speckle under polarized illumination conditions, it is almost an article of faith that the contrast is unity. In many processing schemes, however, the contrast defined as the quotient of the standard deviation and the mean is calculated over a localized spatial region. In such cases, this local contrast displays a distribution of values that can depart substantially from unity. Properties of this distribution depend on details of the data acquisition and on the size of the local neighborhood over which the contrast is calculated. We demonstrate that this local contrast can be characterized in terms of a log-normal distribution. Further, we show that the two defining parameters of this model can in turn be expressed in terms of the minimum speckle size and the extent of the local neighborhood. Performance of the model is illustrated with some typical optical coherence tomography data.