Functional differences in transport properties of natural HKT1;1 variants influence shoot Na+ exclusion in grapevine rootstocks.

Under salinity, Vitis spp. rootstocks can mediate salt (NaCl) exclusion from grafted V. vinifera scions enabling higher grapevine yields and production of superior wines with lower salt content. Until now, the genetic and mechanistic elements controlling sodium (Na+ ) exclusion in grapevine were unknown. Using a cross between two Vitis interspecific hybrid rootstocks, we mapped a dominant quantitative trait locus (QTL) associated with leaf Na+ exclusion (NaE) under salinity stress. The NaE locus encodes six high-affinity potassium transporters (HKT). Transcript profiling and functional characterization in heterologous systems identified VisHKT1;1 as the best candidate gene for controlling leaf Na+ exclusion. We characterized four proteins encoded by unique VisHKT1;1 alleles from the parents, and revealed that the dominant HKT variants exhibit greater Na+ conductance with less rectification than the recessive variants. Mutagenesis of VisHKT1;1 and TaHKT1.5-D from bread wheat, demonstrated that charged amino acid residues in the eighth predicted transmembrane domain of HKT proteins reduces inward Na+ conductance, and causes inward rectification of Na+ transport. The origin of the recessive VisHKT1;1 alleles was traced to V. champinii and V. rupestris. We propose that the genetic and functional data presented here will assist with breeding Na+ -tolerant grapevine rootstocks.

Histone modifications at the grapevine VvOMT3 locus, which encodes an enzyme responsible for methoxypyrazine production in the berry.

Some herbaceous characters in wine are attributed to the presence of aroma compounds collectively known as methoxypyrazines (MPs). In grape berries their formation has been hypothesised to start from a reaction of two amino acids or an amino acid and an unknown 1,2-dicarbonyl compound, leading to the formation of hydroxypyrazine, which is then enzymatically methylated to form a MP. The enzyme responsible of the formation of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine has been recently identified as VvOMT3 whose regulation is still not understood. The concentration of MPs in grapes is known to be influenced by development, environmental stimuli and most importantly grape variety. In order to investigate the chromatin arrangement of that region a chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis has been performed and putative differences in epigenetic regulation of VvOMT3 spatially between the skin and flesh tissues and also temporally during fruit development have been detected. There are also allelic differences in VvOMT3 histone modifications which are maintained in subsequent generations. This study provides evidence of histone tail modification of the VvOMT3 locus in grapevine, which may play a role in the spatial and developmental regulation of the expression of this gene.

A methyltransferase essential for the methoxypyrazine-derived flavour of wine.

Methoxypyrazines are a family of potent volatile compounds of diverse biological significance. They are used by insects and plants in chemical defence, are present in many vegetables and fruit and, in particular, impart herbaceous/green/vegetal sensory attributes to wines of certain varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon. While pathways for methoxypyrazine biosynthesis have been postulated, none of the steps have been confirmed genetically. We have used the F2 progeny of a cross between a rapid flowering grapevine dwarf mutant, which does not produce 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP), and Cabernet Sauvignon to identify the major locus responsible for accumulation of IBMP in unripe grape berries. Two candidate methyltransferase genes within the locus were identified and one was significantly associated with berry IBMP levels using association mapping. The enzyme encoded by this gene (VvOMT3) has high affinity for hydroxypyrazine precursors of methoxypyrazines. The gene is not expressed in the fruit of Pinot varieties, which lack IBMP, but is expressed in Cabernet Sauvignon at the time of accumulation of IBMP in the fruit. The results suggest that VvOMT3 is responsible for the final step in methoxypyrazine synthesis in grape berries and is the major determinant of IBMP production.

Transcriptional analysis of late ripening stages of grapevine berry.

BACKGROUND: The composition of grapevine berry at harvest is a major determinant of wine quality. Optimal oenological maturity of berries is characterized by a high sugar/acidity ratio, high anthocyanin content in the skin, and low astringency. However, harvest time is still mostly determined empirically, based on crude biochemical composition and berry tasting. In this context, it is interesting to identify genes that are expressed/repressed specifically at the late stages of ripening and which may be used as indicators of maturity. RESULTS: Whole bunches and berries sorted by density were collected in vineyard on Chardonnay (white cultivar) grapevines for two consecutive years at three stages of ripening (7-days before harvest (TH-7), harvest (TH), and 10-days after harvest (TH+10)). Microvinification and sensory analysis indicate that the quality of the wines made from the whole bunches collected at TH-7, TH and TH+10 differed, TH providing the highest quality wines.In parallel, gene expression was studied with Qiagen/Operon microarrays using two types of samples, i.e. whole bunches and berries sorted by density. Only 12 genes were consistently up- or down-regulated in whole bunches and density sorted berries for the two years studied in Chardonnay. 52 genes were differentially expressed between the TH-7 and TH samples. In order to determine whether these genes followed a similar pattern of expression during the late stages of berry ripening in a red cultivar, nine genes were selected for RT-PCR analysis with Cabernet Sauvignon grown under two different temperature regimes affecting the precocity of ripening. The expression profiles and their relationship to ripening were confirmed in Cabernet Sauvignon for seven genes, encoding a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase, a galactinol synthase, a late embryogenesis abundant protein, a dirigent-like protein, a histidine kinase receptor, a valencene synthase and a putative S-adenosyl-L-methionine:salicylic acid carboxyl methyltransferase. CONCLUSIONS: This set of up- and down-regulated genes characterize the late stages of berry ripening in the two cultivars studied, and are indirectly linked to wine quality. They might be used directly or indirectly to design immunological, biochemical or molecular tools aimed at the determination of optimal ripening in these cultivars.

Biosynthesis of methoxypyrazines: elucidating the structural/functional relationship of two Vitis viniferaO-methyltransferases capable of catalyzing the putative final step of the biosynthesis of 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazine.

3-Alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines (MPs) are an important food constituent and have been associated with detrimental herbaceous flavors in red wines by consumers and the wine industry. The Vitis vinifera genes O-methyltransferase 1 and 2 (VvOMT1 and VvOMT2) have been isolated in the grapevine cultivar Carmenere. These genes encode S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM)-dependent O-methyltransferases, which have the ability to methylate 3-alkyl-2-hydroxypyrazines (HPs)-the putative final step in MPs production. Atomic studies were performed in order to explain the differences in these VvOMT activities through their structural/functional relationship in MPs biosynthesis. Differences in enthalpy energy observed between the proteins may be due to changes of equivalent residues in the active sites of VvOMT1 (F319, L322) and VvOMT2 (L319, V322). However, docking simulations and QM/MM analyses described how residues H272 and M182 could explain the main functional differentiation observed between VvOMT1 and VvOMT2 through steric impediment, which limits the formation of the transition state in enzymes encoded by VvOMT2. Therefore, this finding could explain the decreasing catalytic efficiency observed for VvOMT2.

Two O-methyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of methoxypyrazines: grape-derived aroma compounds important to wine flavour.

Methoxypyrazines (MPs) are volatile, grape-derived aroma compounds that contribute to the distinct herbaceous characters of some wines. Although the full pathway leading to MP production has not been elucidated, there is strong evidence that the final step involves the methylation of non-volatile hydroxypyrazine (HP) precursors. Two cDNA encoding O-methyltransferases (OMTs) that have homology to an enzyme previously purified and shown to catalyse the methylation of HPs were isolated from Cabernet Sauvignon. Recombinant protein from the cDNAs (VvOMT1 and VvOMT2) was produced in E. coli and activity assays demonstrated that both encode OMTs able to methylate HPs to produce MPs, however both showed greatest activity against the flavonol quercetin. VvOMT1 has higher catalytic activity against isobutyl hydroxypyrazine compared to isopropyl hydroxypyrazine, whereas the converse is true for VvOMT2. The timing of the expression of VvOMT1 in the skin and the flesh of developing Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries was associated with the period of MP accumulation in these tissues, while VvOMT2 expression was greatest in roots, which were found to contain high levels of MPs. The MP composition of these tissues also reflects the relative levels of expression of these genes and their substrate preference. The identification of genes responsible for MP production in grapevine will help in understanding the effect of different viticultural and environmental factors on MP accumulation.