ERRα promotes breast cancer cell dissemination to bone by increasing RANK expression in primary breast tumors.

Bone is the most common metastatic site for breast cancer. Estrogen-related-receptor alpha (ERRα) has been implicated in cancer cell invasiveness. Here, we established that ERRα promotes spontaneous metastatic dissemination of breast cancer cells from primary mammary tumors to the skeleton. We carried out cohort studies, pharmacological inhibition, gain-of-function analyses in vivo and cellular and molecular studies in vitro to identify new biomarkers in breast cancer metastases. Meta-analysis of human primary breast tumors revealed that high ERRα expression levels were associated with bone but not lung metastases. ERRα expression was also detected in circulating tumor cells from metastatic breast cancer patients. ERRα overexpression in murine 4T1 breast cancer cells promoted spontaneous bone micro-metastases formation when tumor cells were inoculated orthotopically, whereas lung metastases occurred irrespective of ERRα expression level. In vivo, Rank was identified as a target for ERRα. That was confirmed in vitro in Rankl stimulated tumor cell invasion, in mTOR/pS6K phosphorylation, by transactivation assay, ChIP and bioinformatics analyses. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of ERRα reduced primary tumor growth, bone micro-metastases formation and Rank expression in vitro and in vivo. Transcriptomic studies and meta-analysis confirmed a positive association between metastases and ERRα/RANK in breast cancer patients and also revealed a positive correlation between ERRα and BRCA1mut carriers. Taken together, our results reveal a novel ERRα/RANK axis by which ERRα in primary breast cancer promotes early dissemination of cancer cells to bone. These findings suggest that ERRα may be a useful therapeutic target to prevent bone metastases.

Identification of novel TMPRSS2:ERG mechanisms in prostate cancer metastasis: involvement of MMP9 and PLXNA2.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the major public health problems in Western countries. Recently, the TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion, which results in the aberrant expression of the transcription factor ERG, has been shown to be the most common gene rearrangement in PCa. Previous studies have determined the contributions of this fusion in PCa disease initiation and/or progression in vitro and in vivo. In this study on TMPRSS2:ERG regulation in PCa, we used an androgen receptor and TMPRSS2:ERG fusion double-negative PCa cell model: PC3c. In three cell clones with different TMPRSS2:ERG expression levels, ectopic expression of the fusion resulted in significant induction of cell migration and invasion in a dose-dependent manner. In agreement with this phenotype, high-throughput microarray analysis revealed that a set of genes, functionally associated with cell motility and invasiveness, were deregulated in a dose-dependent manner in TMPRSS2:ERG-expressing cells. Importantly, we identified increased MMP9 (Metalloproteinase 9) and PLXNA2 (Plexin A2) expression in TMPRSS2:ERG-positive PCa samples, and their expression levels were significantly correlated with ERG expression in a PCa cohort. In line with these findings, there was evidence that TMPRSS2:ERG directly and positively regulates MMP9 and PLXNA2 expression in PC3c cells. Moreover, PLXNA2 upregulation contributed to TMPRSS2:ERG-mediated enhancements of PC3c cell migration and invasion. Furthermore, and importantly, PLXNA2 expression was upregulated in metastatic PCa tumors compared with localized primary PCa tumors. This study provides novel insights into the role of the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion in PCa metastasis.

Chronic exposure of bone morphogenetic protein-2 favors chondrogenic expression in human articular chondrocytes amplified in monolayer cultures.

Articular cartilage is a specialized connective tissue containing chondrocytes embedded in a network of extracellular macromolecules such as type II collagen and presents poor capacity to self-repair. Autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) is worldwide used for treatment of focal damage to articular cartilage. However, dedifferentiation of chondrocytes occurs during the long term culture necessary for mass cell production. The aim of this study was to investigate if addition of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2, a strong inducer of chondrogenic expression, to human chondrocytes immediately after their isolation from cartilage, could help to maintain their chondrogenic phenotype in long-term culture conditions. Human articular chondrocytes were cultured according to the procedure used for ACT. Real-time PCR and Western blotting were performed to evaluate the cellular phenotype. Exogenous BMP-2 dramatically improves the chondrogenic character of knee articular chondrocytes amplified over two passages, as assessed by the BMP-2 stimulation on type II procollagen expression and synthesis. This study reveals that BMP-2 could potentially serve as a therapeutic agent for supporting the chondrogenic phenotype of human articular chondrocytes expanded in the conditions generally used for ACT.

Ets-1 p27: a novel Ets-1 isoform with dominant-negative effects on the transcriptional properties and the subcellular localization of Ets-1 p51.

The transcription factor Ets-1 is implicated in various physiological processes and invasive pathologies. We identified a novel variant of ets-1, ets-1Delta(III-VI), resulting from the alternative splicing of exons III to VI. This variant encodes a 27 kDa isoform, named Ets-1 p27. Ets-1 p27 lacks the threonine-38 residue, the Pointed domain and the transactivation domain, all of which are required for the transactivation of Ets-1 target genes. Both inhibitory domains surrounding the DNA-binding domain are conserved, suggesting that Ets-1 p27, like the full-length Ets-1 p51 isoform, is autoinhibited for DNA binding. We showed that Ets-1 p27 binds DNA in the same way as Ets-1 p51 does and that it acts both at a transcriptional and a subcellular localization level, thereby constituting a dual-acting dominant negative of Ets-1 p51. Ets-1 p27 blocks Ets-1 p51-mediated transactivation of target genes and induces the translocation of Ets-1 p51 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Furthermore, Ets-1 p27 overexpression represses the tumor properties of MDA-MB-231 mammary carcinoma cells in correlation with the known implication of Ets-1 in various cellular mechanisms. Thus the dual-acting dominant-negative function of Ets-1 p27 gives to the Ets-1 p27/Ets-1 p51 ratio a determining effect on cell fate.

[Human chondrocyte responsiveness to bone morphogenetic protein-2 after their in vitro dedifferentiation: potential use of bone morphogenetic protein-2 for cartilage cell therapy]. / Réponse des chondrocytes humains à la bone morphogenetic protein-2 après leur dédifférenciation in vitro : utilisation potentielle de la bone morphogenetic protein-2 pour la thérapie cellulaire du cartilage.

AIM OF THE STUDY: Cartilage has a limited capacity for healing after trauma. Autologous chondrocyte implantation is widely used for the treatment of patients with focal damage to articular cartilage. Chondrocytes are isolated from biopsy specimen, cultured in monolayers on plastic then transplanted over the cartilage defect. However, chondrocyte amplification on plastic triggers their dedifferentiation. This phenomenon is characterized by loss of expression of type II collagen, the most abundant cartilage protein. The challenge for autologous chondrocyte implantation is to provide patients with well-differentiated cells. The aim of the present study was to test the capability of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 to promote redifferentiation of human chondrocytes after their expansion on plastic. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Chondrocytes extracted from nasal cartilage obtained after septoplasty were serially cultured in monolayers. After one, two or three passages, BMP-2 was added to the culture medium. The cellular phenotype was characterized at the gene level by using RT-PCR. The expression of genes coding for type II procollagen with the ratio of IIB/IIA forms, aggrecan, Sox9, osteocalcin and type I procollagen was monitored. RESULTS: Our results show that BMP-2 can stimulate chondrogenic expression of the chondrocytes amplified on plastic, without inducing osteogenic expression. However, this stimulatory effect decreases with the number of passages. CONCLUSION: The efficiency of autologous chondrocyte implantation could be improved by using chondrocytes treated with BMP-2 during their in vitro preparation.

A specific and unusual nuclear localization signal in the DNA binding domain of the Rev-erb orphan receptors.

The orphan receptors Rev-erbalpha and Rev-erbbeta are members of the nuclear receptors superfamily and act as transcriptional repressors. Rev-erbalpha is expressed with a robust circadian rhythm and is involved in liver metabolism through repression of the ApoA1 gene, but no role has been yet defined for Rev-erbbeta. To gain better understanding of their function and mode of action, we characterized the proteins encoded by these two genes. Both Rev-erbalpha and Rev-erbbeta proteins were nuclear when transiently transfected in COS-1 cells. The major nuclear location signal (NLS) of Rev-erbalpha is in the amino-terminal region of the protein. Fusion of green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the amino terminus of Rev-erbalpha deletion mutants showed that the NLS is located within a 53 amino acid segment of the DNA binding domain (DBD). The homologous region of Rev-erbbeta fused to GFP also targeted the fusion protein to the nucleus, suggesting that the location of this NLS is conserved among all the Rev-erb group members. Interestingly, members of the phylogenetically closest nuclear orphan receptor group (ROR), which exhibit 58% amino acid identity with Rev-erb in the DBD, do not have their NLS located within the DBD. GFP/DBD. RORalpha or GFP/DBD.RORbeta remained cytoplasmic, in contrast to GFP/DBD. Rev-erb fusion proteins. Alignment of human Rev-erb and ROR DBD amino acid sequences predicted that the two basic residues, K167 and R168, located just upstream from the second zinc finger, could play a critical part in the nuclear localization of Rev-erb proteins. Substitution of these two residues with those found in ROR, in the GFP/DBD. Rev-erb context, resulted in cytoplasmic proteins. In contrast, the reverse mutation of the GFP/DBD. RORalpha towards the Rev-erbalpha residues targeted the fusion protein to the nucleus. Our data demonstrate that Rev-erb proteins contain a functional NLS in the DBD. Its location is unusual within the nuclear receptor superfamily and suggests that Rev-erb orphan receptors control their intracellular localization via a mechanism different from that of other nuclear receptors.

Differential expression of P450 aromatase during gonadal sex differentiation and sex reversal of the newt Pleurodeles waltl.

A better understanding of vertebrate sexual differentiation could be provided by a study of models in which genetic sex determination (GSD) of gonads can be reversed by temperature. In the newt Pleurodeles waltl, a P450 aromatase cDNA was isolated from adult gonads, and the nucleotide or deduced amino acid sequences showed a high level of identity with various vertebrate species. In adults, aromatase expression was found in gonads and brain. In developing gonads, the expression was found to fit with the thermo-sensitive period (TSP) and was detected in both ZZ and ZW larvae, as well as in ZW submitted during the whole TSP to a masculinizing temperature. In the latter individuals, in situ hybridization and semi quantitative RT-PCR showed that, at the end of TSP, aromatase expression was at the same level than in normal ZZ larvae and was significantly lower than in normal ZW ones. Furthermore, temperature-induced down regulation did not occur when heating was performed at the end of TSP. Our results confirm the importance of aromatase regulation in female versus male differentiation and demonstrate that a down regulation of aromatase expression is involved in the process of sex reversal.

Identification of amino acid residues in the ETS transcription factor Erg that mediate Erg-Jun/Fos-DNA ternary complex formation.

Jun, Fos, and Ets proteins belong to distinct families of transcription factors that target specific DNA elements often found jointly in gene promoters. Physical and functional interactions between these families play important roles in modulating gene expression. Previous studies have demonstrated a direct interaction between the DNA-binding domains of the two partners. However, the molecular details of the interactions have not been investigated so far. Here we used the known three-dimensional structures of the ETS DNA-binding domain and Jun/Fos heterodimer to model an ETS-Jun/Fos-DNA ternary complex. Docking procedures suggested that certain ETS domain residues in the DNA recognition helix alpha3 interact with the N-terminal basic domain of Jun. To support the model, different Erg ETS domain mutants were obtained by deletion or by single amino acid substitutions and were tested for their ability to mediate DNA binding, Erg-Jun/Fos complex formation, and transcriptional activation. We identified point mutations that affect both the DNA binding properties of Erg and its physical interaction with Jun (R367K), as well as mutations that essentially prevent transcriptional synergy with the Jun/Fos heterodimer (Y371V). These results provide a framework of the ETS/bZIP interaction linked to the manifestation of functional activity in gene regulation.

The Ets family member Erg gene is expressed in mesodermal tissues and neural crests at fundamental steps during mouse embryogenesis.

The Erg gene belongs to the Ets family encoding a class of transcription factors. To gain new insight on the in vivo functional specificity of the Erg gene within the wide Ets family, we used in situ hybridization to determine its expression pattern during murine embryogenesis. We found that the Erg gene expression predominates in mesodermal tissues, including the endothelial, precartilaginous and urogenital areas. A specific Erg gene expression was also identified in migrating neural crest cells. A comparison with Fli-1, the most closely Erg-related gene, revealed that both gene expressions partially overlap, suggesting that they may contribute to related functions in these tissues. Like other Ets family genes, Erg seems involved in several fundamental developmental steps in murine embryogenesis, including epithelio-mesenchymal transition, cell migration, settlement and differentiation.

Molecular phylogeny of the ETS gene family.

We have constructed a molecular phylogeny of the ETS gene family. By distance and parsimony analysis of the ETS conserved domains we show that the family containing so far 29 different genes in vertebrates can be divided into 13 groups of genes namely ETS, ER71, GABP, PEA3, ERG, ERF, ELK, DETS4, ELF, ESE, TEL, YAN, SPI. Since the three dimensional structure of the ETS domain has revealed a similarity with the winged-helix-turn-helix proteins, we used two of them (CAP and HSF) to root the tree. This allowed us to show that the family can be divided into five subfamilies: ETS, DETS4, ELF, TEL and SPI. The ETS subfamily comprises the ETS, ER71, GABP, PEA3, ERG, ERF and the ELK groups which appear more related to each other than to any other ETS family members. The fact that some members of these subfamilies were identified in early metazoans such as diploblasts and sponges suggests that the diversification of ETS family genes predates the diversification of metazoans. By the combined analysis of both the ETS and the PNT domains, which are conserved in some members of the family, we showed that the GABP group, and not the ERG group, is the one most closely related to the ETS group. We also observed that the speed of accumulation of mutations in the various genes of the family is highly variable. Noticeably, paralogous members of the ELK group exhibit strikingly different evolutionary speed suggesting that the evolutionary pressure they support is very different.

Erg proteins, transcription factors of the Ets family, form homo, heterodimers and ternary complexes via two distinct domains.

The ets genes family encodes a group of proteins which function as transcription factors under physiological conditions. We report here that the Erg proteins, members of the Ets family, form homo and heterodimeric complexes in vitro. We demonstrate that the Ergp55 protein isoform forms dimers with itself and with the two other isoforms, Ergp49 and Ergp38. Using a set of Erg protein deletion mutants, we define two distinct domains independently involved in dimerization. The first one is located in the amino-terminal part of the protein containing the pointed domain (PNT), conserved in a subset of Ets proteins. The second one resides within the ETS domain, the DNA-binding domain. We also show that the Erg protein central region behaves as an inhibitory domain of dimerization and its removal enhances the Ergp55 transactivation properties. Furthermore, Ergp55 forms heterodimers with some other Ets proteins. Among the latter, we show that Fli-1, Ets-2, Er81 and Pu-1 physically interact with Erg. Finally, we show that the formation of the previously described ternary complex Ergp55/Fos/jun is mediated by ETS domain and Jun protein, while the ternary complex Ergp49/Fos/Jun is mediated by Fos protein.

Ets transcription factors bind and transactivate the core promoter of the von Willebrand factor gene.

von Willebrand factor (vWF) gene expression is restricted to endothelial cells and megakaryocytes. Previous results demonstrated that basal transcription of the human vWF gene is mediated through a promoter located between base pairs -89 and +19 (cap site: +1) which is functional in endothelial and non endothelial cells. Two DNA repeats TTTCCTTT correlating with inverted consensus binding sites for the Ets family of transcription factors are present in the -56/-36 sequence. In order to analyse whether these DNA elements are involved in transcription, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), bovine calf pulmonary endothelial cell line (CPAE), HeLa and COS cells were transfected with constructs containing deletions of the -89/+19 fragment, linked to the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) reporter gene. The -60/+19 region exhibits significant promoter activity in HUVEC and CPAE cells only. The -42/+19 fragment is not active. Mutations of the -60/+19 promoter fragment in the 5' (-56/-49) Ets binding site abolish transcription in endothelial cells whereas mutations in the 3' (-43/-36) site does not. The -60/-33 fragment forms three complexes with proteins from HUVEC nuclear extracts in electrophoretic mobility shift assay which are dependent on the presence of the 5' Ets binding site. Binding of recombinant Ets-1 protein to the -60/-33 fragment gives a complex which also depends on the 5' site. The -60/+19 vWF gene core promoter is transactivated in HeLa cells by cotransfecting with Ets-1 or Erg (Ets-related gene) expression plasmids. In contrast to the wild type construct, transcription of the 5' site mutants is not increased by these expressed proteins. The results indicate that the promoter activity of the -60/+19 region of the vWF gene depends on transcription factors of the Ets family of which several members like Ets-1, Ets-2 and Erg are expressed in endothelium. Cotransfection of Ets-1 and Erg expression plasmids is sufficient to induce the -60/+19 vWF promoter activity in HeLa cells.

Erg, an Ets-family member, differentially regulates human collagenase1 (MMP1) and stromelysin1 (MMP3) gene expression by physically interacting with the Fos/Jun complex.

Collagenase1 (MMP1) and stromelysin1 (MMP3) are extracellular proteolytic enzymes that degrade connective tissue macromolecules and basement membranes. Both genes are regulated by the Ets and Fos/Jun families of transcription factors/oncoproteins. Here, we show that two members of the Ets-family, Ets2 and Erg and their combinations differentially regulate collagenase1 and stromelysin1 promoter activity. In transiently transfected cells, Ets2 activates both promoters whereas Erg induces collagenase1 but not stromelysin1 promoter activity. Moreover, Erg completely inhibits stromelysin1 promoter activation by Ets2. In gel shift assays however, the Erg protein bound little or not to the collagenase1 promoter, whereas it bound to the stromelysin1 promoter. By site-specific mutagenesis, we identified one major site at -88 that abolished collagenase1 promoter activation by Erg. Surprisingly, mutation of the collagenase1 AP1 site at -73 also abolished the activation by Erg suggesting that Erg cooperates with Fos/Jun in collagenase1 promoter regulation. Indeed, gel shift and in vitro protein interaction studies showed that Erg binds to the Fos/Jun complex. Thus, Erg represents the first example of a transcription factor that can distinguish between the collagenase1 and stromelysin1 promoters in that when Erg is recruited by Fos/Jun at the promoter, it transcriptionally activates collagenase1 gene but not stromelysin1 expression.

Role of TGF beta s and BMPs as signals controlling the position of the digits and the areas of interdigital cell death in the developing chick limb autopod.

The establishment of the digital rays and the interdigital spaces in the developing limb autopod is accompanied by the occurrence of corresponding domains of expression of TGF beta s and BMPs. This study analyzes whether these coincident events are functionally correlated. The experiments consisted of local administration of TGF beta-1, TGF beta-2 or BMP-4 by means of heparin or Affi-gel blue beads to the chick limb autopod in the stages preceding the onset of interdigital cell death. When beads bearing either TGF beta-1 or -2 were implanted in the interdigits, the mesodermal cells were diverted from the death program forming ectopic cartilages or extra digits in a dose- and stage-dependent fashion. This change in the interdigital phenotype was preceded by a precocious ectopic expression of ck-erg gene around the bead accompanied by down-regulation of bmp-4, msx-1 and msx-2 gene expression. When BMP-beads were implanted in the interdigital spaces, programmed cell death and the freeing of the digits were both accelerated. Implantation of beads bearing BMP-4 at the tip of the growing digits was followed by digit bifurcation, accompanied by the formation of an ectopic area of cell death resembling an extra interdigit, both morphologically and molecularly. The death-inducing effect of the BMP beads and the chondrogenic-inducing effect of the TGF beta beads were antagonized by the implantation of an additional bead preabsorbed with FGF-2, which constitutes a signal characteristic of the progress zone. It is concluded that the spatial distribution of digital rays and interdigital spaces might be controlled by a patterned distribution of TGF beta s and BMPs in the mesoderm subjacent to the progress zone.

Mesodermal expression of the chicken erg gene associated with precartilaginous condensation and cartilage differentiation.

The ets gene superfamily encodes a class of transcription factors that bind to a purine rich sequence through a 85 amino-acid ETS domain. Among them, the human erg gene has been found to be involved in Ewing's sarcoma, primitive neurectodermal tumour of childhood and acute myeloid leukaemia. Nevertheless, little is known about human erg expression. Northern blot analyses have shown a human erg expression restricted to few cell lines and thymus, but the status concerning expression during development remains unknown probably because no homologue of this gene has yet been isolated and studied in other vertebrates. We thus choose to clone the chicken erg gene (ck-erg) and to study its expression during chicken development. We obtained a bona fide clone of ck-erg and defined the transcriptional modulating properties of its product. The ck-Erg protein acts as a transcriptional activator through a conventional consensus ETS binding site. Northern blot studies on various chicken tissues, in situ analyses and comparison with the well-characterised c-ets-1 expression show that ck-erg is expressed in mesoderm- and, to a lesser extent, in ectoderm-derived tissues. During chicken development, two salient features could be observed. From stage E1 to E3.5, ck-erg expression was widely distributed in mesodermal derivatives and neural crest, resembling c-ets-1 expression. However, by E6, the expression of ck-erg exhibited, unlike c-ets-1, a drastically new and strong signal in precartilaginous condensation zones and cartilaginous skeletal primordia. These stages are the first steps of bone formation during skeletal elaboration. Our results show for the first time a possible specific involvement of ck-erg in cartilage morphogenesis.

New human erg isoforms generated by alternative splicing are transcriptional activators.

The erg gene is a member of the ets gene family. ETS proteins have been shown to bind specifically the (GGA-A/T) motif and to transactivate via this consensus sequence. The human erg products exhibit approximately 70% homology with ETS proteins in their DNA-binding domain. We have isolated three erg cDNAs from a human fetal liver library. Two of them are different from the previously described erg-1 and erg-2 cDNAs (Rao et al., Science, 1987, 237, 635-639), in the middle of their coding sequence and in their 5' part where a novel initiation codon is introduced. These isoforms are generated by alternative RNA splicing from a single gene that leads to the inclusion or exclusion of different exon sequences. The three cDNAs expressed by an in vitro transcription-translation system direct the synthesis of proteins of approximately 38, 49 and 55 kDa. These in vitro erg products were tested for their DNA-binding activity by gel mobility-shift assays with different probes containing the ETS-specific binding site. The results indicated that all these erg isoforms are able to bind the ETS binding site in a specific manner. Our data using transient transfection assays indicate that erg protein isoforms function as transcriptional activators.

Mapping the Down syndrome chromosome region. Establishment of a YAC contig spanning 1.2 megabases.

The triplication of a region of chromosome 21 around D21S55 in 21q22.2-22.3 has been involved in the main features of Down syndrome including mental retardation (Down syndrome chromosome region: DCR). To improve the physical map of this region, we screened yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) libraries with ETS2 and ERG sequences. Five selected clones were analyzed by AluPCR, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and in situ hybridization. A 1.2-Mg contig, encompassing the protooncogenes ETS2 and ERG, was identified, its restriction map established and compared to the genomic map. ERG is distal to D21S55 and proximal to ETS2. ERG and ETS2 genes are 400 kb apart and in opposite orientations. The contig contains the distal boundary and part of the DCR. Three putative HTF islands were identified.

Evolution of the ets gene family.

Over the past few years a variety of genes have been described whose protein products share similarity with that of the c-ets-1 proto-oncogene, the cellular counterpart of the v-ets oncogene of the avian E26 retrovirus. This so-called "ets family" of transcription factors includes at least a dozen members present in several organisms. We have questioned the common evolutionary origin of these various gene products. By constructing phylogenetical trees with different methods, we show that the ets family is very ancient since the duplication of the various groups of ets related proteins occurred before the Arthropods/Vertebrates split (ca. 500 million years).

Evidence for different human tracheobronchial mucin peptides deduced from nucleotide cDNA sequences.

Highly glycosylated regions or glycopeptides were obtained by proteolysis of human tracheobronchial mucins. They were chemically deglycosylated and the resulting products were used to raise a rabbit antiserum. This antiserum specifically recognized the superanuclear region of respiratory and colonic goblet cells as areas around and below the nucleus of mucin-secreting cells in tracheobronchial mucous glands. A lambda gt11 cDNA library constructed from human tracheobronchial mucosa was screened with this antiserum. Ten positive clones were obtained from screening half of the library (about 10(6) recombinants). The antibodies were purified by absorption to each positive clone; some purified antibodies were specific for goblet cells and others recognized both goblet and mucous cells, indicating that there is differential cellular expression of mucin peptides. The total or partial amino acid sequences deduced from these cDNA clones could be classified into three groups. The first group contained repetitive sequences of eight amino acid residues, almost perfectly identical, and in different arrangements. The second type exhibited homology at their amino and carboxy-terminal ends. The last group had no distinctive feature except for a high content of hydroxy amino acids typical of mucins. Five different clones could correspond to the carboxy-terminal end of tracheobronchial apomucins. These results indicate that human tracheobronchial apomucins consist of a family of different proteins.

Polymorphism of the proto-oncogene ETS-1 in hematological malignancies.

We studied a novel restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of the proto-oncogenes ETS-1 that we detected in a patient with an acute monocytic leukemia by the presence of two, 3.7 and 10 kb, Xbal fragments on Southern blots of DNA from blast cells and remission blood samples. RFLP analysis of a series of 114 normal donors revealed that only four (3.6%) shared the 10 kb fragment. By contrast, this unusual allele was found in 20 (all lymphocytic or monocytic) of 108 (18.5%) hematological malignancies (p less than 0.001). DNA sequence analysis indicated the disappearance in the rare allele of a Xbal site due to a single point mutation at the 3' end of ETS-1 locus. Molecular consequences of this mutation point to a possible pathogenic involvement of ETS-1 in these disorders and to the question of genetic susceptibility to hematological malignancies.