Pharmacokinetics and CYP2D6 genotypes do not predict metoprolol adverse events or efficacy in hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: Beta-Blocker use can be associated with adverse effects that may have an impact on adherence or harm patients. The commonly prescribed beta-blocker metoprolol is metabolized by the polymorphic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 enzyme, resulting in widely variable drug exposure. We investigated whether metoprolol plasma concentrations, CYP2D6 polymorphisms, or genotype-derived phenotype was associated with adverse effects or efficacy in patients with hypertension. METHODS: Fifty hypertensive patients received metoprolol by use of a dose-titration algorithm until target blood pressure was reached, intolerable side effects occurred, or maximal daily dose was achieved. CYP2D6 genotype was determined by methods based on polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism and included 19 allelic variants. Patients were assigned to standard phenotype groups on the basis of genotype. Patients were also assigned activity scores based on functional activity of the alleles. General and dose-limiting adverse events and blood pressure responses were analyzed in relation to metoprolol steady-state pharmacokinetic profile and CYP2D6 genotype-derived phenotype. RESULTS: Poor metabolizers had a significantly longer elimination half-life, higher S-metoprolol area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC), and lower oral clearance (P < or = .007 for all parameters). There was a 29.6-fold variability in AUC among extensive metabolizers, which was largely explained by CYP2D6 activity scores (P = .032 for ordered differences in AUC by activity score among extensive metabolizers). Overall general and dose-limiting adverse event rates were 46% and 14%, respectively. General adverse event rates did not differ by AUC quartile (66.7% [95% confidence interval (CI), 35.4%-88.7%] and 41.7% [95% CI, 16.5%-71.4%] in the lowest and highest quartiles, respectively; P = .09 among all quartiles). Dose-limiting adverse event rates were also not different by AUC quartile (16.7% [95% CI, 2.9%-49.1%] and 8.3% [95% CI, 0.4%-40.2%] in the lowest and highest quartiles; P = .35 among all quartiles). Furthermore, adverse event rates did not differ by activity scores or between extensive, intermediate, or poor metabolizers. Antihypertensive response rate and blood pressure changes also were not influenced by differences in plasma concentrations or CYP2D6 genotypes. CONCLUSIONS: As expected, CYP2D6 genotype-phenotype correlates with differences in metoprolol pharmacokinetics. However, there was no association between variable pharmacokinetics or CYP2D6 genotype and beta-blocker-induced adverse effects or efficacy.

Neuroprotective effects of a novel non-receptor-binding estrogen analogue: in vitro and in vivo analysis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Although estrogens are neuroprotective, hormonal effects limit their clinical application. Estrogen analogues with neuroprotective function but lacking hormonal properties would be more attractive. The present study was undertaken to determine the neuroprotective effects of a novel 2-adamantyl estrogen analogue, ZYC3. METHODS: Cytotoxicity was induced in HT-22 cells by 10 mmol/L glutamate. 17beta-Estradiol (E2) or ZYC3 was added immediately before the exposure to glutamate. Cell viability was determined by calcein assay. The binding of E2 and ZYC3 to human alpha (ERalpha) and beta (ERbeta) estrogen receptors was determined by ligand competition binding assay. Ischemia/reperfusion injury was induced by temporary middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). E2 or ZYC3 (100 microg/kg) was administered 2 hours or immediately before MCAO, respectively. Infarct volume was determined by 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining. Cerebral blood flow was recorded during and within 30 minutes after MCAO by a hydrogen clearance method. RESULTS: ZYC3 significantly decreased toxicity of glutamate with a potency 10-fold that of E2. ZYC3 did not bind to either ERalpha or ERbeta. Infarct volume was significantly reduced to 122.4+/-17.6 and 83.1+/-19.3 mm(3) in E2 and ZYC3 groups, respectively, compared with 252.6+/-15.6 mm(3) in the ovariectomized group. During MCAO, both E2 and ZYC3 significantly increased cerebral blood flow in the nonischemic side, while no significant differences were found in the ischemic side. However, E2 and ZYC3 significantly increased cerebral blood flow in both sides within 30 minutes after reperfusion. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that ZYC3, a non-receptor-binding estrogen analogue, possesses both neuroprotective and vasoactive effects, which offers the possibility of clinical application for stroke without the side effects of estrogens. It also suggests that both the neuroprotective and vasoactive effects of estrogen are receptor independent.