Flow and outdoor adventure recreation: Using flow measures to re-examine motives for participation.

Adventure participants have traditionally been viewed as having thrill or risk-seeking motives, and this perception remains despite empirical research suggesting that other motives may drive participation. This study was conducted to extend understanding of participation motives of adventure recreation participants in relation to Csiksentmihalyi's nine-dimension model of flow and other proposed motivational constructs. Participants (n = 199) who had typically engaged in their adventure recreation activity (i.e., highlining, rock climbing, downhill mountain biking, freefalling, snow sports) regularly, and with considerable competence, took part in this investigation by completing self-report measures of dispositional flow (The Dispositional Flow Scale; DFS-2), state flow (The Short Flow State Scale; SFSS), and participation motives in their adventure recreation environments. Support was observed in confirmatory factor analytic procedures for the factorial validity of DFS-2 and SFSS data obtained from adventure recreation participants. Mean scores from measures on participant experience of flow in adventure recreation were generally found to be significantly higher than previously observed in other physical activity domains, with some differences also being observed among adventure recreation subgroups. Contrary to traditional explanations of adventure recreation participation, risk-seeking was not supported as a key underlying motive by participants in this study. Mastery of one's adventure recreation activity, perceived connection to one's activity, and trust in one's skills, were identified as important participation motives. This study demonstrated that the DFS-2 and SFSS were able to satisfactorily assess flow constructs in adventure recreation, and supported recent research demonstrating flow to be a relevant experience to this setting. The implications of these findings for theory, practice, and future research directions in adventure recreation are discussed.

Changes in athlete burnout over a thirty-week "rugby year".

Controversy over a negative experiential state among players, discussed as "burnout" in media reports, stimulated the New Zealand Rugby Union to commission research (including the present study) into players' experiences. Athlete burnout research to date has largely been limited to studies featuring cross-sectional designs. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in the key characteristics of burnout over a "rugby year", a 30-week competitive period involving two or more independent competitions. Players completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire at three different times during the 30-week competitive rugby year. Some statistically significant changes were observed in key characteristics of burnout across the competitive rugby year. Specifically players reported that their feelings of reduced accomplishment increased pre-competition to in-competition phases. Changes in exhaustion over time were associated with playing position. Burnout was also associated with injury, non-selection, rugby experience and team membership. Overall the results reflect that burnout is a dynamic experience and indicate that factors such as playing position, injury, selection and starting status are worthy of further investigation.

Mutational analysis of the human SLC26A8 gene: exclusion as a candidate for male infertility due to primary spermatogenic failure.

SLC26A8 is an anion transporter that is solely expressed in the testes. It interacts with MgcRacGAP that shows strong structural similarity with the Drosophila protein RotundRacGAP, which is established to have an essential role for male fertility in the fruit fly. To explore whether the SLC26A8 gene has a role in human male infertility, we performed mutational analysis in the coding region of the SLC26A8 gene in 83 male infertility patients and two groups of controls using single-strand conformational polymorphism and direct sequencing methods. We found six novel coding sequence variations, of which five lead to amino acid substitutions. All variants were found with similar frequencies in both patients and controls, thus suggesting that none of them may be causally associated with infertility. We conclude that the SLC26A8 mutations are not a common cause of male infertility.

The athlete burnout syndrome: possible early signs.

Burnout has been identified as a concern in elite sport. The aim of the current study was to examine relationships among proposed early signs and the athlete burnout syndrome. Quantitative methods (i.e., questionnaire) were used to identify the level of burnout and perceptions of proposed early signs among New Zealand male semi- and fully-professional Rugby Union players (n = 199) aged 19 to 33 years (M = 25.19, SD = 2.98). Results indicated significant associations among proposed early signs and athlete burnout. Perceptions of adequate social support, competence and perceptions of control were negatively correlated with key characteristics of burnout. Perceived rugby and money hassles were positively correlated with key characteristics of burnout. This research provides support for the proposed early signs of burnout. Further research is needed to confirm these findings and investigate the nature of the relationship between these early signs and the burnout syndrome.

Using skinfold calipers while teaching body fatness-related concepts: cognitive and affective outcomes.

Body composition testing has been advocated as part of fitness test batteries in an educational effort to promote health-related fitness, and to prevent public health problems like obesity. However, the measurement of the body composition of children and youth, especially involving the use of skinfold calipers, has raised concerns. In two experiments the cognitive and affective consequences of skinfold caliper use in a 7th grade (155 boys, 177 girls, total N = 332) health/physical education context were examined. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the students could be taught to accurately measure a partner and/or significantly learn body fatness-related concepts compared to controls. It was also shown that inexpensive plastic Fat Control calipers produced accurate measurements. Experiment 2 was designed to replicate the significant cognitive outcome effects, and also to test the hypothesis that psychological damage is a likely consequence of skinfold caliper use-and that hypothesis was refuted. Specifically, knowledge scores, and outcome scores on adapted affect scales (e.g., PANAS, MAACL), physical self-esteem scales (CY-PSPP) and on the Social Physique Anxiety Scale supported the premise that skinfold calipers can be used in an educational context to facilitate cognitive learning without causing adverse affective consequences.

A theoretical study of the uncatalyzed and BF3-assisted Baeyer-Villiger reactions.

The mechanisms for the uncatalyzed and boron trifluoride (BF3) assisted Baeyer-Villiger reactions between acetone and hydrogen peroxide have been investigated using high level ab initio [MP2 and CCSD(T)] and density functional theory (B3LYP) methods. Both steps in the uncatalyzed reaction are found to have very high transition state energies. It is clear that detectable amounts of the Crieege intermediate or the products cannot be formed without the aid of a catalyst. The main function of BF3 in both the addition step and the rearrangement (migration) step is to facilitate proton transfer. In the addition step the complexation of hydrogen peroxide with BF3 leads to an increased acidity of the attacking OH group, while in the rearrangement step BF3 takes active part in the proton-transfer process. This latter step is found to be rate determining with an activation free energy of 17.7 kcal/mol in organic solution. The products of the reaction are BF2OH, hydrogen fluoride, and methyl acetate. Thus, BF3 is not directly regenerated from the reaction.

Children's physical activity and physical self-perceptions.

The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between physical self-perceptions and physical activity in Canadian school children aged 10-14 years. The sample consisted of 220 boys and 246 girls in grades 5-8. Physical activity was assessed by 7-day recall using the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children. Self-perceptions of physical conditioning, sports competence, strength, body appearance and general physical self-worth were measured by the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP). We found that boys were more physically active than girls and had higher perceptions of sport competence and strength. All PSPP scales were significantly correlated with physical activity in both boys and girls. Structural equation modelling procedures found the hierarchical PSPP model provided a good fit to the observed data, with little evidence of differences between the sexes. Analysis of five alternative structural models of the relationship between the PSPP and physical activity found the most parsimonious model to have significant pathways from both physical conditioning and sport skills to physical activity. Models for the sample as a whole, for boys and for girls were similar, accounting for an R2 of 0.27-0.29 for physical activity. Our results demonstrate that physical self-perceptions, especially physical conditioning and sport skills, are significant correlates of activity in this population.

An examination of psychosocial variables moderating the relationship between life stress and injury time-loss among athletes of a high standard.

Based on Williams and Andersen's model of stress and athletic injury, six psychosocial variables were assessed as possible moderators of the relationship between life stress and injury among 121 athletes (65 males, 56 females) competing in a variety of sports at state, national or international level. No significant effects of the sex of the participants were evident. Correlational analyses revealed moderator effects of several variables. Specifically, dispositional optimism and hardiness were related to decreased injury time-loss in athletes when positive life change increased, and global self-esteem was associated with decreased injury time-loss when both negative life change and total life change increased. The results indicate that athletes with more optimism, hardiness or global self-esteem may cope more effectively with life change stress, resulting in reduced injury vulnerability and recovery rates.

Coping with performance slumps: factor analysis of the Ways of Coping in Sport Scale.

The measurement properties of the Ways of Coping in Sport Scale (WOCS) were examined using performance slumps as a frame of reference. Confirmatory factor analysis failed to support the factor structure previously proposed by Madden et al. (1987, 1989, 1990), and additional analyses were undertaken to develop and validate an alternative model. Results indicated that the data best fit a 4-factor model, but that a 5-factor model might also be justified. Relevant factors included Seeking of Social Support, Denial/Avoidance, Wishful Thinking, Effort/Resolve, and Emotional Control. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for athletes, coaches and sport psychologists as well as the need for further examination of slump-related coping instruments.

A season-long investigation of competitive cognition in collegiate wrestlers.

Recently, Gould, Eklund, and Jackson (1992b) reported the results of an extensive investigation with 1988 U.S. Olympic wrestlers. Examination of retrospective data revealed clear differences in the organization and content of thought during all-time best and Olympic worst performances. However, Gould and associates (1992b) advised caution in the interpretation of their findings because of the investigation's episodic nature and stressed the need for further in-depth exploration. The present investigation addressed this need by collecting qualitative data from six NCAA Division I wrestlers via in-depth retrospective interviews regarding 38 season matches in addition to data regarding all-time best and worst performances. Examination of performance data revealed high, moderate, and low performance quality levels. Observable patterns in the organization and content of competitive thought were identified across these performance levels. These patterns are reminiscent of the findings of Gould et al. (1992b), the results of previous research comparing successful and unsuccessful athletes, and other research examining optimal performance states. As might be anticipated from research comparing elite and less elite athletes, the collegiate athletes differed from Olympians on several accounts.

Coping strategies used by U.S. Olympic wrestlers.

Extensive in-depth interviews were conducted with all 20 members of the 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Team regarding their efforts to cope with stress experienced during the Seoul Olympics. Qualitative analyses revealed that the wrestlers employed a variety of coping strategies including: (a) thought control strategies (blocking distractions, perspective taking, positive thinking, coping thoughts, and prayer), (b) task focus strategies (narrow, more immediate focus, concentrating on goals), (c) behavioral based strategies (changing or controlling the environment, following a set routine), and (d) emotional control strategies (arousal control, visualization). In accordance with the observations of Compas (1987) and Folkman and Lazarus (1985), the coping efforts of the Olympic wrestlers were not limited to particular strategies nor to single approaches to dealing with a particular stressor but, rather, reflected a dynamic complex process involving a number of strategies, often in combination. The results also suggested that the degree to which coping strategies are well learned or automatized is related to their perceived effectiveness.

Prevalence of nonclassical congenital adrenal hyperplasia among women self-referred for electrolytic treatment of hirsutism.

Nonclassical congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NCCAH) is well recognized among women who seek medical attention for hirsutism. However, the prevalence of this disorder among women self-referred for electrolytic treatment of hirsutism is unknown. We hypothesized that the prevalence of NCCAH among women attending an electrolysis clinic might be high. By measuring the morning salivary 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) as a screening test for NCCAH in 46 women in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle, we identified 12 subjects with a high basal salivary 17-OHP. Eleven agreed to have a 60-minute Cosyntropin-stimulation test, as did an additional 6 of 9 women with normal basal salivary 17-OHP, but with a particularly high hirsutism score. One of the women with high basal salivary 17-OHP had a 60-minute Cosyntropin response, which was diagnostic of NCCAH. She was of the Ashkenazi Jewish decent, a group previously reported to have a high prevalence of NCCAH. A second woman with high salivary 17-OPH had a Cosyntropin-stimulation response consistent with heterozygosity for 21-hydroxylase deficiency. None of the Cosyntropin-stimulation responses in those chosen for a high hirsutism score were diagnostic. Thus, 1 of 46 (2.2%) of the women who entered our study had unrecognized NCCAH, a prevalence only about 2-fold greater than that reported in the general population. Therefore, we recommend that electrolysis clinics advise clients from ethnic groups known to have a high frequency of NCCAH of the advisability of having a formal medical evaluation for NCCAH.

Induction of mitotic micronuclei by X-ray contrast media in human peripheral lymphocytes.

In vitro and in vivo cytogenetic effects of X-ray contrast media (CM) were determined by scoring micronuclei (MN) in 72-h cultures of human peripheral lymphocytes. Both ionic (sodium meglumine diatrizoate, methylglucamine diatrizoate, and sodium meglumine ioxaglate and nonionic CM (iosimide, iopromide, iohexol and iotrolan) were able to induce MN in lymphocytes. Based upon their calculated percent probabilities for MN induction, these agents could be ranked in their decreasing order of probability, as iosimide greater than sodium meglumine ioxaglate greater than iohexol greater than sodium meglumine diatrizoate greater than iopromide greater than methylglucamine diatrizoate greater than iotrolan. Stepwise logistic regression analysis of the data indicated that the frequency of MN in CM-exposed lymphocyte cultures was significantly higher than the frequency of MN in control cultures (P less than 0.001). In clinical studies where 14 patients were injected with an ionic CM methylglucamine diatrizoate, lymphocyte cultures from 10 patients showed higher frequencies of MN. The differences between pre- and post-CM counts of MN were significant in a Mann-Whitney U test (P less than 0.05). The effect of X-irradiation on MN formation in lymphocytes was separately determined and was found to be insignificant. These results indicate that irrespective of ionic and osmolality differences, X-ray contrast agents are capable of producing chromosomal damage in peripheral lymphocytes. Further studies are required to establish molecular mechanisms in the observed cytogenetic effects of CM in cell cultures.

Contrast media-induced chromosomal damage in human lymphocyte cultures.

Ionic (diatrizoate, ioxaglate) and nonionic (iohexol, iosimide, iopromide, and iotrolan) contrast media (CM) were evaluated for their cytogenetic effects in lymphocytes. Heparinized blood was mixed with culture medium RPMI-1640 supplemented with phytohemagglutinin, fetal calf serum, and antibiotics. Plastic tubes containing blood samples were incubated at 37 degrees C in 5% CO2 humidified air for 48 hours. To these cultures, increasing amounts of CM were added and cells incubated for an additional 24 hours. After this exposure, red blood cells were lysed with hypotonic KC1, lymphocyte smears fixed on glass slides and stained with May-Grünwald Giemsa. Chromosomal damage was analyzed by a micronucleus test. All CM tested induced micronuclei in lymphocytes quite significantly (P less than .001) when compared with the frequency of micronuclei in controls. These observations on the genotoxic potential of nonionic CM suggest that factors other than ionic composition and osmolality are involved in clastogenesis; further studies are needed to establish the molecular mechanisms in CM induced chromosomal damage.

Metal oxide reduction: A low-temperature reaction with graphite in flameless atomic-absorption spectrometry.

The ability of graphite to reduce metal oxides to the free metal is discussed. Differential thermal analysis and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy are used to investigate the reaction in the case of CuSO(4). The reduction process is shown to occur at temperatures which are low relative to the appearance temperature of Cu. Thew results suggest that the appearance temperature of the element is governed by the vapour pressure of the metal and not by the reduction process.