Flow and outdoor adventure recreation: Using flow measures to re-examine motives for participation.

Adventure participants have traditionally been viewed as having thrill or risk-seeking motives, and this perception remains despite empirical research suggesting that other motives may drive participation. This study was conducted to extend understanding of participation motives of adventure recreation participants in relation to Csiksentmihalyi's nine-dimension model of flow and other proposed motivational constructs. Participants (n = 199) who had typically engaged in their adventure recreation activity (i.e., highlining, rock climbing, downhill mountain biking, freefalling, snow sports) regularly, and with considerable competence, took part in this investigation by completing self-report measures of dispositional flow (The Dispositional Flow Scale; DFS-2), state flow (The Short Flow State Scale; SFSS), and participation motives in their adventure recreation environments. Support was observed in confirmatory factor analytic procedures for the factorial validity of DFS-2 and SFSS data obtained from adventure recreation participants. Mean scores from measures on participant experience of flow in adventure recreation were generally found to be significantly higher than previously observed in other physical activity domains, with some differences also being observed among adventure recreation subgroups. Contrary to traditional explanations of adventure recreation participation, risk-seeking was not supported as a key underlying motive by participants in this study. Mastery of one's adventure recreation activity, perceived connection to one's activity, and trust in one's skills, were identified as important participation motives. This study demonstrated that the DFS-2 and SFSS were able to satisfactorily assess flow constructs in adventure recreation, and supported recent research demonstrating flow to be a relevant experience to this setting. The implications of these findings for theory, practice, and future research directions in adventure recreation are discussed.

Changes in athlete burnout over a thirty-week "rugby year".

Controversy over a negative experiential state among players, discussed as "burnout" in media reports, stimulated the New Zealand Rugby Union to commission research (including the present study) into players' experiences. Athlete burnout research to date has largely been limited to studies featuring cross-sectional designs. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in the key characteristics of burnout over a "rugby year", a 30-week competitive period involving two or more independent competitions. Players completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire at three different times during the 30-week competitive rugby year. Some statistically significant changes were observed in key characteristics of burnout across the competitive rugby year. Specifically players reported that their feelings of reduced accomplishment increased pre-competition to in-competition phases. Changes in exhaustion over time were associated with playing position. Burnout was also associated with injury, non-selection, rugby experience and team membership. Overall the results reflect that burnout is a dynamic experience and indicate that factors such as playing position, injury, selection and starting status are worthy of further investigation.

The athlete burnout syndrome: possible early signs.

Burnout has been identified as a concern in elite sport. The aim of the current study was to examine relationships among proposed early signs and the athlete burnout syndrome. Quantitative methods (i.e., questionnaire) were used to identify the level of burnout and perceptions of proposed early signs among New Zealand male semi- and fully-professional Rugby Union players (n = 199) aged 19 to 33 years (M = 25.19, SD = 2.98). Results indicated significant associations among proposed early signs and athlete burnout. Perceptions of adequate social support, competence and perceptions of control were negatively correlated with key characteristics of burnout. Perceived rugby and money hassles were positively correlated with key characteristics of burnout. This research provides support for the proposed early signs of burnout. Further research is needed to confirm these findings and investigate the nature of the relationship between these early signs and the burnout syndrome.

Using skinfold calipers while teaching body fatness-related concepts: cognitive and affective outcomes.

Body composition testing has been advocated as part of fitness test batteries in an educational effort to promote health-related fitness, and to prevent public health problems like obesity. However, the measurement of the body composition of children and youth, especially involving the use of skinfold calipers, has raised concerns. In two experiments the cognitive and affective consequences of skinfold caliper use in a 7th grade (155 boys, 177 girls, total N = 332) health/physical education context were examined. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the students could be taught to accurately measure a partner and/or significantly learn body fatness-related concepts compared to controls. It was also shown that inexpensive plastic Fat Control calipers produced accurate measurements. Experiment 2 was designed to replicate the significant cognitive outcome effects, and also to test the hypothesis that psychological damage is a likely consequence of skinfold caliper use-and that hypothesis was refuted. Specifically, knowledge scores, and outcome scores on adapted affect scales (e.g., PANAS, MAACL), physical self-esteem scales (CY-PSPP) and on the Social Physique Anxiety Scale supported the premise that skinfold calipers can be used in an educational context to facilitate cognitive learning without causing adverse affective consequences.

Children's physical activity and physical self-perceptions.

The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between physical self-perceptions and physical activity in Canadian school children aged 10-14 years. The sample consisted of 220 boys and 246 girls in grades 5-8. Physical activity was assessed by 7-day recall using the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children. Self-perceptions of physical conditioning, sports competence, strength, body appearance and general physical self-worth were measured by the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP). We found that boys were more physically active than girls and had higher perceptions of sport competence and strength. All PSPP scales were significantly correlated with physical activity in both boys and girls. Structural equation modelling procedures found the hierarchical PSPP model provided a good fit to the observed data, with little evidence of differences between the sexes. Analysis of five alternative structural models of the relationship between the PSPP and physical activity found the most parsimonious model to have significant pathways from both physical conditioning and sport skills to physical activity. Models for the sample as a whole, for boys and for girls were similar, accounting for an R2 of 0.27-0.29 for physical activity. Our results demonstrate that physical self-perceptions, especially physical conditioning and sport skills, are significant correlates of activity in this population.

An examination of psychosocial variables moderating the relationship between life stress and injury time-loss among athletes of a high standard.

Based on Williams and Andersen's model of stress and athletic injury, six psychosocial variables were assessed as possible moderators of the relationship between life stress and injury among 121 athletes (65 males, 56 females) competing in a variety of sports at state, national or international level. No significant effects of the sex of the participants were evident. Correlational analyses revealed moderator effects of several variables. Specifically, dispositional optimism and hardiness were related to decreased injury time-loss in athletes when positive life change increased, and global self-esteem was associated with decreased injury time-loss when both negative life change and total life change increased. The results indicate that athletes with more optimism, hardiness or global self-esteem may cope more effectively with life change stress, resulting in reduced injury vulnerability and recovery rates.

Coping with performance slumps: factor analysis of the Ways of Coping in Sport Scale.

The measurement properties of the Ways of Coping in Sport Scale (WOCS) were examined using performance slumps as a frame of reference. Confirmatory factor analysis failed to support the factor structure previously proposed by Madden et al. (1987, 1989, 1990), and additional analyses were undertaken to develop and validate an alternative model. Results indicated that the data best fit a 4-factor model, but that a 5-factor model might also be justified. Relevant factors included Seeking of Social Support, Denial/Avoidance, Wishful Thinking, Effort/Resolve, and Emotional Control. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for athletes, coaches and sport psychologists as well as the need for further examination of slump-related coping instruments.

A season-long investigation of competitive cognition in collegiate wrestlers.

Recently, Gould, Eklund, and Jackson (1992b) reported the results of an extensive investigation with 1988 U.S. Olympic wrestlers. Examination of retrospective data revealed clear differences in the organization and content of thought during all-time best and Olympic worst performances. However, Gould and associates (1992b) advised caution in the interpretation of their findings because of the investigation's episodic nature and stressed the need for further in-depth exploration. The present investigation addressed this need by collecting qualitative data from six NCAA Division I wrestlers via in-depth retrospective interviews regarding 38 season matches in addition to data regarding all-time best and worst performances. Examination of performance data revealed high, moderate, and low performance quality levels. Observable patterns in the organization and content of competitive thought were identified across these performance levels. These patterns are reminiscent of the findings of Gould et al. (1992b), the results of previous research comparing successful and unsuccessful athletes, and other research examining optimal performance states. As might be anticipated from research comparing elite and less elite athletes, the collegiate athletes differed from Olympians on several accounts.

Coping strategies used by U.S. Olympic wrestlers.

Extensive in-depth interviews were conducted with all 20 members of the 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Team regarding their efforts to cope with stress experienced during the Seoul Olympics. Qualitative analyses revealed that the wrestlers employed a variety of coping strategies including: (a) thought control strategies (blocking distractions, perspective taking, positive thinking, coping thoughts, and prayer), (b) task focus strategies (narrow, more immediate focus, concentrating on goals), (c) behavioral based strategies (changing or controlling the environment, following a set routine), and (d) emotional control strategies (arousal control, visualization). In accordance with the observations of Compas (1987) and Folkman and Lazarus (1985), the coping efforts of the Olympic wrestlers were not limited to particular strategies nor to single approaches to dealing with a particular stressor but, rather, reflected a dynamic complex process involving a number of strategies, often in combination. The results also suggested that the degree to which coping strategies are well learned or automatized is related to their perceived effectiveness.