Extent to which COVID-19 will affect future use of the train in Israel.

Many countries have taken a variety of measures to stop the spread of SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus responsible for COVID-19 infections. Among the most important of these involve using social distancing to prevent contact. Restricted social contacts have important effects on activity participation and on travel demand. The current study examined an array of less-studied factors, such as attitudes and beliefs toward train use, including risk perception of flu-type infection, alongside more traditional factors, which together affect decisions whether to continue using the train. Data was collected using an internet survey application. The study was based on two surveys that were conducted approximately seven months apart, the first completed by 237 participants and the second by 149. We developed a structural equation model to better understand the influence of various factors on decisions whether to continue to use the train. We found a correlation between perception of the risk of infection and the decision to continue train travel. Study results also demonstrate the relation between trip purpose and the decision to use public transportation. The study results highlight the importance of many attributes favorably associated with train travel, including saving time, reliability, and comfort. Therefore, in contrast to the existing situation where the railway company makes its own decisions to decrease trip frequencies and to cancel some lines, government policy makers and the railway company should maintain a strong frequency schedule and increase the number of lines in order to accommodate social distancing. In addition, we found that the most effective measures for encouraging people to keep traveling by train required mask use, preventing people with flu-like symptoms from traveling by train, and fining those who do not comply. In order to sustain the train use as a viable alternative to using private vehicles it is important to decrease the risk perception of being infected by coronavirus and other kinds of infected diseases while traveling by train. This can be addressed by creating a clean and reasonably sterile environment. These results highlight the need for serious intervention by decision-makers in order to sustain the train use as a viable alternative to using private vehicles.

Perceptions, intentions and behavioral norms that affect pre-license driving among Arab youth in Israel.

The present study examines reported pre-license driving among youth from the population of Arab citizens of Israel. The purpose of the present study is to examine which sociodemographic variables, attitudes and perceptions about safe driving and individual and societal behavioral norms are associated with pre-license driving. The research distinguished between the factors that actually contribute to pre-license driving (reported behavior, peer norms, gender and parents' messages) and the factors that explain the intention (parental authority, social norms, parents' messages and fear of road crashes). Even though there was a significant partial overlap (84%) between those who intend to drive without a license and those who reported driving without a license, the main factors that distinguish pre-license driving groups are different from the factors that distinguish the intention to drive before receiving a license. What is unique about the findings is the identification of the context in which social norms are influential and that in which parental authority is influential. The study indicated that in the case of pre-license driving, the main motivating factor is subjective norms, whereas in the case of expecting to drive without a license, the main motivating factor is the interaction between parental authority and the messages that parents convey. While actual behavior pertains to the behavioral level, we argue that intended behavior pertains to the cognitive level. At this level, rational considerations arise, such as fear of parental punishment and fear of accidents. These considerations compete with the influence of friends and their norms, and may outweigh them. The findings suggest that it is important to safeguard youth against the influence of peer pressure as early as the stage of behavioral intentions. Follow-up studies can simulate situations of pre-license driving due to social pressure and identify the factors that might affect young people's decision-making. Moreover, providing parents with training before the accompaniment period is highly recommended.

Self-monitoring of driving speed.

In-vehicle data recorders (IVDR) have been found to facilitate safe driving and are highly valuable in accident analysis. Nevertheless, it is not easy to convince drivers to use them. Part of the difficulty is related to the "Big Brother" concern: installing IVDR impairs the drivers' privacy. The "Big Brother" concern can be mitigated by adding a turn-off switch to the IVDR. However, this addition comes at the expense of increasing speed variability between drivers, which is known to impair safety. The current experimental study examines the significance of this negative effect of a turn-off switch under two experimental settings representing different incentive structures: small and large fines for speeding. 199 students were asked to participate in a computerized speeding dilemma task, where they could control the speed of their "car" using "brake" and "speed" buttons, corresponding to automatic car foot pedals. The participants in two experimental conditions had IVDR installed in their "cars", and were told that they could turn it off at any time. Driving with active IVDR implied some probability of "fines" for speeding, and the two experimental groups differed with respect to the fine's magnitude, small or large. The results indicate that the option to use IVDR reduced speeding and speed variance. In addition, the results indicate that the reduction of speed variability was maximal in the small fine group. These results suggest that using IVDR with gentle fines and with a turn-off option maintains the positive effect of IVDR, addresses the "Big Brother" concern, and does not increase speed variance.

Cross-Cultural Validity in Self-Reported Alcohol Use.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Little evidence is available on whether respondents from divergent sociocultural populations report alcohol consumption in systematically similar ways. Therefore, this study examined whether the validity of self-reported alcohol use differed between Arab and Jewish Israeli pub patrons. METHODS: The analytical sample consisted of 227 Arab and 900 Jewish Israeli pub patrons who were approached as they left pubs and asked to record their Breath Alcohol Content (BrAC) value and complete a questionnaire that probed into their alcohol use. Validity of self-reported alcohol use across the 2 groups was examined by testing the discrepancy in concordance between the self-reported number of drinks and BrAC scores through simple Pearson correlations and by performing a multi-group measurement invariance (MI) comparison. RESULTS: The Pearson correlation between the self-reported number of drinks and BrAC by the ethno-cultural group was almost identical across groups (Jews: r = 0.47, p < 0.01, df = 898; Arabs: r = 0.42, p < 0.01, df = 225). MI test results further confirmed that the factor loadings of the 2 drinking measures are similar across the 2 ethno-cultural groups. CONCLUSIONS: Self-reported alcohol consumption gives cross-culturally valid and acceptable estimates of alcohol consumption in this sample of Israeli Arabs and Jews.

Examining the sociocultural sensitivity of subjective drunkenness: Comparing Arab and Jewish Israeli pub patrons.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Subjective drunkenness measures may be useful screening tools for alcohol-related problems. However, if self-reported drunkenness is influenced by social and cultural understandings, the measure may not predict drinking patterns equally across different sociocultural groups. The current study aims to determine whether the two main sociocultural groups in Israel (Arabs and Jews) are equally likely to report drunkenness at comparable levels of breath alcohol content (BrAC). DESIGN AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 901 Jewish and 225 Arab Israeli pub patrons. Respondents were interviewed as they exited pubs between midnight and 4 am. In addition to sociodemographic data, respondents reported whether they felt drunk at the time of the interview, after which they provided breath samples to determine BrAC. A logistic regression model tested whether there were differences in the probability of reporting drunkenness between Arabs and Jews holding BrAC levels and other background variables constant. RESULTS: Arabs had higher BrAC levels than Jews (M = 0.19 vs. M = 0.13, P ≤ 0.0001) but a lower proportion of Arabs reported drunkenness than Jews (22% vs. 43%). Adjusted logistic regression showed that at all levels of BrAC, Jews had a higher probability of reporting drunkenness than Arabs (odds ratio = 6.40, P ≤ 0.0001). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Subjective drunkenness is likely to be influenced by cultural factors and may thus not reflect objective drinking patterns equally across different groups within the same society. This is likely to limit its usefulness as a screening tool for alcohol abuse and problems. [Sznitman SR, Bord S, Elias W, Gesser-Edelsburg A, Shiftan Y, Baron-Epel O. Examining the sociocultural sensitivity of subjective drunkenness: Comparing Arab and Jewish Israeli pub patrons.

Who are the traffic offenders among ethnic groups and why?

Marginalized populations, particularly ethnic minorities, are often at a higher risk of being involved in traffic crashes and committing traffic violations. Prominent explanations for this "ethnic traffic risk gap" include cultural and socioeconomic factors, usually measured at an aggregate level. In particular, it has been hypothesized that ethnic minorities commit traffic violations as a form of social resistance to what they perceive to be an oppressing regime. The current study examined the mechanisms underlying traffic violations at the individual level within a single ethnic minority, Israeli-Arabs. The study sample (n=231) included a group of known offenders (n=60) and non-offenders (n=171), all of which completed the Traffic Violation Questionnaire. The results show that offenders and non-offenders tended to have different types of occupations, although these did not translate into significant differences in level of income. Offenders reported significantly lower levels of trust in some hegemonic institutions (the police, government ministries) but not others (parliament, the juridical system). However, offenders displayed remarkably different daily activity patterns, including much higher exposure to traffic (3h/day vs. 0.75) and more complex trip patterns. Our results find little support for the social resistance hypothesis, as it fails to explain the differential treatment of hegemonic institutions. Daily activity patterns stand out as a central mechanism influencing the risk of violations. These results suggest policymakers should adopt a holistic approach for traffic safety interventions but avoid monolithic views of ethnic minorities which may lead to an inefficient use of resources.

Alcohol consumption among Arabs in Israel: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: The Israeli society is a unique setting in which the Arabs are exposed to western alcohol consumption norms while living in Arab communities where alcohol consumption is not accepted. OBJECTIVES: To characterize Arab Muslim, Druze and Christian alcohol consumption behaviors and contingencies while being exposed to western style alcohol consumption. METHODS: This study was a phenomenological qualitative study interviewing six focus groups and 13 individual Arab Muslims, Christians and Druze. Themes and categories were identified using qualitative methodology analysis. RESULTS: Two concurrent contingencies exist for Arab Muslim men: on the one hand they describe pressure to drink because of social norms, and on the other hand they are reprehended for drinking, because of the religious interdiction. Therefore, they hide their drinking in secluded places. In addition, participants reported more heavy drinking among Muslim Men. Arab Christians reported drinking openly especially among men. Women do not drink and are looked down upon if they drink. Drinking may be viewed as a stage in life that a Muslim boy or young man goes through, he is expected to grow out of this stage and stop drinking while becoming religious. Conclusions/importance: Due to Muslim laws prohibiting alcohol consumption, alcohol consumption is not high, however it does exist especially among young men and when they drink they tend to drink heavily, more than the Arab Christians. Therefore, there is a need for interventions targeting younger Muslim men, to establish moderate drinking behaviors, if they chose to drink.

Examining differences in drinking patterns among Jewish and Arab university students in Israel.

OBJECTIVES: Worldwide there is a dearth of studies examining drinking patterns in Arabs and how these compare to other populations. The few studies that exist have suggested distinct drinking patterns in Arabs, with not only high rates of abstinence but also high rates of heavy drinking among current drinkers. No studies have yet examined potential socio-cognitive mechanisms that may contribute to this distinct drinking pattern. Israel represents a unique and valuable resource for studying Arab population drinking patterns because Israeli Arabs are nonimmigrants living in areas where exposure to Western lifestyles, including alcohol consumption, is prevalent. The current study was set out to examine differences in alcohol consumption in a convenience sample of 1310 Jewish and Arab students from Israeli universities and colleges and to explore alcohol expectancies as potential mediators of ethno-religious differences. DESIGN: Logistic regressions were used to produce odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals to test differences between Jewish and Arab students on binary outcomes (lifetime, last month, and heavy drinking). Mediation of ethno-religious differences by alcohol expectancies was tested with bootstrapping procedures. RESULTS: Results show that while Israeli Arab students tend to be more likely to abstain from alcohol than Israeli Jewish students, among current drinkers, Israeli Arab students are at a particular high risk of heavy drinking. Results also show that this is partly mediated by the expectancy that alcohol only influences the drinker at high levels of intake. CONCLUSION: The current study confirms distinct Arab drinking patterns found in previous studies. The present study is the first demonstration that drinking expectations mediate ethno-religious differences in heavy drinking among Israeli Arabs and Jews. This work contributes to the understanding of ethno-religious group differences in harmful drinking, potentially informing future etiologic research and public health interventions aimed at reducing alcohol-related harm.

Analyzing and modeling risk exposure of pedestrian children to involvement in car crashes.

This paper analyzes the various variables affecting pedestrian children road crashes, placing emphasis on the effect of daily activity patterns and the built environment, including the children's residential neighborhoods and the land use of the places where they conduct their activities. Two complementary data sources from the case study of an Arab town in northern Israel were used to provide a holistic picture of child-pedestrian road crashes: police files providing detailed analyzes of the reason for each crash, its location, and the characteristics of the driver involved; and a survey of 199 households with both involved and not involved children in road crashes, including a one-day travel diary. The study found that a combination of three groups of variables affects child-pedestrian road crashes: socio-economic status, travel patterns, and land use. Most vulnerable are boys from a low socio-economic group who live in areas of high density and mixed land use near a major road and who tend to walk to and from school and additional activities after school.

The detrimental danger of Water-Pipe (Hookah) transcends the hazardous consequences of general health to the driving behavior.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the consumption of tobacco used in Water-Pipe by drivers increases the risk of a motor vehicle collision as a consequence of hypoxia. DESIGN: Analytical case-control study. DATA SOURCES: Seventy exclusive Water-Pipe smokers (Experimental Group--EG)--mean age ± SD: 29.47 ± 10.45 years; mean number of weekly WPS, (6.9 ± 3.7); mean duration of WPS (WPS) is (7.5 ± 2.1 years)--and thirty non-smoker (Control Group--CG; mean age ± SD: 36.33 ± 13.92 years) were recruited during 2011 from two Arab villages located in the Galilee, northern Israel. METHODS: We performed a case-control study exclusively among Water-Pipe smokers with an appropriate non smokers control group. Demographic questionnaire, Pulse Oxymeter for blood oxygenation measure and a driver simulator for measuring various participants driving behaviors were utilized. Statistical analysis for analyzing the different variables, Pearson's x2 analysis for the comparison of categorical variables, continuous variable is compared using Student's t-test and for testing the correlation between the different variables and bivariate correlation analysis were applied. RESULTS: In the (EG) following WPS, we observed increase in the pulse rate--from 80 to 95 (t = 11.84, p < 0.05) and decrease in saturation level from 97.9 to 97.32, the decrease is statistically significant (t = 3.01, p < 0.05) versus no change in (CG). An increased number of accidents among EG (OR is 1.333 with CI of 1.008-1.776), while in CG, an insignificantly decrease (t = 3.08, p < 0.05). In EG an increase in centerline crossings (OR is 1.306 with CI of 1.016-1.679), also the total time not being within the lane was increased and the estimated (OR: 1.329; CI: 1.025-1.722). WPS increases the number of accidents by 33% and Hypoxia can cause driving behavioral turbulences. CONCLUSION: The results show that WPS has a significant impact on driving behavior and on the risk of being involved in road accidents and causing driving to become riskier and less careful and stable. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time such relationships have been tested. After WPS the total number of traffic accidents and driving violations increase. The results show a significant increase in the pulse rate immediately after WPS with a decrease in the saturation rate (the level of blood oxygenation); these changes continue half an hour after WPS.

The effect of daily-activity patterns on crash involvement.

The main purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of daily-activity and travel patterns on the risk of crash involvement. To this end, we develop a model that integrates daily-activity and travel choices in a single framework, recognizing that these variables affect the risk of crashes. This model can therefore provide predictions of the expected changes in risk levels from the implementation of measures that affect the daily-activity patterns and the socio-economic characteristics of the population. The empirical analysis makes use of data collected during a household survey that includes crash information and trip diaries. The model is applied in a case study of an Arab town in Israel to analyze various transportation policies. The results of this research show that in addition to individuals' demographic and socio-economic characteristics, their daily-activity and travel patterns also have an impact on the risk of being involved in car crashes. The case study showed the potential of this framework for analyzing the effect of various social and transportation policies on road safety. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time such relationships have been tested by using a disaggregate model and the first time activity-based models have been used to analyze exposure to the risk of road crashes.