ABSTRACT
Because RNA polymerase is a powerful motor, transmission of transcription-generated forces might directly alter DNA structure, chromatin or gene activity in mammalian cells. Here we show that transcription-generated supercoils streaming dynamically from active promoters have considerable consequences for DNA structure and function in cells. Using a tamoxifen-activatable Cre recombinase to excise a test segment of chromatin positioned between divergently transcribed metallothionein-IIa promoters, we found the degree of dynamic supercoiling to increase as transcription intensified, and it was very sensitive to the specific arrangement of promoters and cis elements. Using psoralen as an in vivo probe confirmed that, during transcription, sufficient supercoiling is produced to enable transitions to conformations other than B-DNA in elements such as the human MYC far upstream element (FUSE), which in turn recruit structure-sensitive regulatory proteins, such as FUSE Binding Protein (FBP) and FBP-Interacting Repressor (FIR). These results indicate that mechanical stresses, constrained by architectural features of DNA and chromatin, may broadly contribute to gene regulation.
Subject(s)
Chromatin/chemistry , Chromatin/metabolism , DNA, Superhelical/chemistry , DNA, Superhelical/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation/physiology , Promoter Regions, Genetic , Transcription, Genetic/physiology , Chromatin Immunoprecipitation , DNA Topoisomerases/metabolism , Electrophoresis, Agar Gel , Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors/metabolism , Humans , Protein Binding , RNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Rho Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors , Trans-Activators/metabolismABSTRACT
FarUpStream Element (FUSE) Binding Protein (FBP) binds the human c-myc FUSE in vitro only in single-stranded or supercoiled DNA. Because transcriptionally generated torsion melts FUSE in vitro even in linear DNA, and FBP/FBP Interacting Repressor (FIR) regulates transcription through TFIIH, these components have been speculated to be the mechanosensor (FUSE) and effectors (FBP/FIR) of a real-time mechanism controlling c-myc transcription. To ascertain whether the FUSE/FBP/FIR system operates according to this hypothesis in vivo, the flux of activators, repressors and chromatin remodeling complexes on the c-myc promoter was monitored throughout the serum-induced pulse of transcription. After transcription was switched on by conventional factors and chromatin regulators, FBP and FIR were recruited and established a dynamically remodeled loop with TFIIH at the P2 promoter. In XPB cells carrying mutant TFIIH, loop formation failed and the serum response was abnormal; RNAi depletion of FIR similarly disabled c-myc regulation. Engineering FUSE into episomal vectors predictably re-programmed metallothionein-promoter-driven reporter expression. The in vitro recruitment of FBP and FIR to dynamically stressed c-myc DNA paralleled the in vivo process.
