Accessory respiratory muscles performance among people with spinal cord injury while singing songs with different musical parameters.

People with spinal cord injury (SCI) experience respiratory dysfunctions which include hypersecretions, bronchospasm, and respiratory muscles weakness. Singing therapy has been implemented as part of respiratory muscle training (RMT) to improve their muscle strength. Singing different types and genres of songs may elicit specific recruitment of respiratory muscles, attributed to the variation of the songs' characteristics including tempo, pitch, and rhythmic complexity. This study aims to determine the effect of singing songs with different characteristics on the accessory respiratory muscle performance among people with SCI. Thirteen male SCI participants of ASIA A and B (C4 -T11) were recruited. Respiratory muscle signals were retrieved by placing two mechanomyography (MMG) sensors on the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles. Eight music experts categorized several songs into four categories based on their pitch, tempo, and rhythmic complexity. Each participant sang one song from each category. Findings showed statistically significant difference in RA and SCM responses among all categories (P < 0.01). The SCM muscle is most active while singing high pitch songs. While the RA is most active during slow tempo and easy rhythmic complexity. This shows that different accessory respiratory muscle is activated by people with SCI while singing songs with different characteristics. Clinicians could benefit from this knowledge while prescribing singing therapy or exercise among people with SCI in the future.

Postural effects on blood pressure, intraocular pressure, and ocular perfusion pressure in patients with spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND: Reduced ocular perfusion pressure (OPP) from hypotension and consistent OPP variability due to blood pressure (BP) fluctuations are predisposing factors for glaucoma. Low resting BP and orthostatic hypotension (OH) in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients may increase the risk of glaucoma post-injury. This study investigated BP, intraocular pressure (IOP), and OPP changes between supine and sitting positions in SCI and normal individuals. METHODS: Twenty SCI cases (high paraplegia, T1-T6 n = 6; low paraplegia, T7-L3 n = 14) and matched controls (1:1) were included. Systolic and diastolic BP (SBP and DBP) were measured digitally, and IOP with rebound tonometry. Measurements were taken one minute apart in both positions. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was calculated, and OPP was determined using position-specific formulas. RESULTS: No SCI subjects exhibited OH. Both groups experienced significant BP increment (P < 0.05) from supine to sitting. SBP increased by 4.4 ± 8.4 mmHg (SCI) and 3.6 ± 6.2 mmHg (normal), while DBP increased by 4.2 ± 5.1 mmHg (SCI) and 6.7 ± 5.5 mmHg (normal). IOP and OPP decreased significantly (P < 0.05) after postural change in both groups, yet differences between them were not significant. Analysis by injury level revealed lower parameter values in high paraplegia than in low paraplegia, with the latter group showing a more significant reduction in OPP after postural change. CONCLUSION: Postural changes differently affect BP, IOP, and OPP in SCI compared to normal individuals, with variations based on the level of SCI. While not directly assessing glaucoma, the study offers insights into ocular hemodynamics in SCI compared to normals.

What are the effects of information provision for stroke survivors and their caregivers? A Cochrane Review summary with commentary.

BACKGROUND: Stroke can lead to permanent and severe disability. Provision of information to stroke survivors and their carers could help them cope with consequences of stroke and aware of secondary prevention. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this Cochrane review was to assess the effects of active or passive information provision for stroke survivors or their carers. METHODS: The population addressed in this review included stroke survivors, their carers, or both. The intervention studied was provision of active or passive information compared to standard care or where information and another therapy were compared with the other therapy alone, or where the comparison was between active and passive information provision. The primary outcomes were knowledge about stroke and stroke services, and anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: The authors concluded that the active provision of information may improve stroke survivors stroke-related knowledge and quality of life. It may reduce the cases and symptoms of anxiety and probably depression. The effect of active information provision to carers and passive information provision is still unclear; however, passive information may worsen stroke patients' symptoms of anxiety and depression.

The association between health service systems and pressure injury problems of individuals with chronic spinal cord injury in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether a health service system is an independent influencing factor of having pressure injury (PI) problems in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) living in three countries. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. METHODS: Data from the International Spinal Cord Injury Community Survey (InSCI) were analyzed. The PI problems were assessed using the Spinal Cord Injury Secondary Condition Scales (dichotomized to "having problem" and "not having problem". Health service systems were categorized as an inpatient-oriented SCI specialized system and a primary care-oriented system. A directed acyclic graph was applied to create a multivariable logistic regression model to determine the independent influencing factors of PI problems. RESULTS: Of 790 included participants, 277 (35%) had PI problems. Being recruited from countries with inpatient-oriented SCI specialized systems (Model 1) and visiting rehabilitation medicine/SCI physicians at least once a year (Model 2) is an independent negative correlating factor of PI problems (odds ratio = 0.569 [95%CI: 0.374-0.866] and 0.591 [95%CI: 0.405-0.864], respectively). CONCLUSION: SCI-specialized health service systems might be a protective factor of PI problems in middle-income country contexts. This result suggests the importance of having SCI-specialized services in middle-income countries to reduce the prevalence of PI problems.

Bladder Drainage Options For People With Spinal Cord Injury: A Mini-Review.

Neurogenic bladder is one of the negative consequences following a spinal cord injury (SCI). SCI patients who have neurogenic bladder depend on alternative methods to drain urine from their bladder. These include indwelling catheters, reflex voiding , suprapubic tapping and intermittent catheterisation. This review summarizes evidence from the literature of five selected complications (renal failure, urinary tract infections, calculi, urethral stricture, and bladder cancer) that could result from use of the different bladder drainage methods. There is inconsistent evidence to support the superiority of intermittent over indwelling catheterisation on risk of renal impairment, urethral stricture, and renal calculi. Indwelling catheterisations are associated with higher risk of bladder calculi and cancer. Caution needs to be taken when interpreting this review, as many of its findings are from retrospective studies, and more than a decade old. Clinicians need to communicate the evidence to their patients when making the decision on method of bladder drainage.

Health System's Role in Facilitating Health Service Access among Persons with Spinal Cord Injury across 22 Countries.

(1) Background: Despite efforts to improve access to health services, between- and within-country access inequalities remain, especially for individuals with complex disabling conditions like spinal cord injury (SCI). Persons with SCI require regular multidisciplinary follow-up care yet experience more access barriers than the general population. This study examines health system characteristics associated with access among persons with SCI across 22 countries. (2) Methods: Study data are from the International Spinal Cord Injury Survey with 12,588 participants with SCI across 22 countries. Cluster analysis was used to identify service access clusters based on reported access restrictions. The association between service access and health system characteristics (health workforce, infrastructure density, health expenditure) was determined by means of classification and regression trees. (3) Results: Unmet needs were reported by 17% of participants: lowest (10%) in Japan, Spain, and Switzerland (cluster 1) and highest (62%) in Morocco (cluster 8). The country of residence was the most important factor in facilitating access. Those reporting access restrictions were more likely to live in Morocco, to be in the lowest income decile, with multiple comorbidities (Secondary Conditions Scale (SCI-SCS) score > 29) and low functioning status (Spinal Cord Independence Measure score < 53). Those less likely to report access restriction tended to reside in all other countries except Brazil, China, Malaysia, Morocco, Poland, South Africa, and South Korea and have fewer comorbidities (SCI-SCS < 23). (4) Conclusions: The country of residence was the most important factor in facilitating health service access. Following the country of residence, higher income and better health were the most important facilitators of service access. Health service availability and affordability were reported as the most frequent health access barriers.

Respiratory muscle training: a bibliometric analysis of 60 years' multidisciplinary journey.

BACKGROUND: Over the decades, many publications have established respiratory muscle training (RMT) as an effective way in improving respiratory dysfunction in multiple populations. The aim of the paper is to determine the trend of research and multidisciplinary collaboration in publications related to RMT over the last 6 decades. The authors also sought to chart the advancement of RMT among people with spinal cord injury (SCI) over the last 60 years. METHODS: Bibliometric analysis was made, including the publications' profiles, citation analysis and research trends of the relevant literature over the last 60 years. Publications from all time frames were retrieved from Scopus database. A subgroup analysis of publications pertinent to people with SCI was also made. RESULTS: Research on RMT has been steadily increasing over the last 6 decades and across geographical locations. While medicine continues to dominate the research on RMT, this topic also continues to attract researchers and publications from other areas such as engineering, computer science and social science over the last 10 years. Research collaboration between authors in different backgrounds was observed since 2006. Source titles from non-medical backgrounds have also published articles pertinent to RMT. Among people with SCI, researchers utilised a wide range of technology from simple spirometers to electromyography in both intervention and outcome measures. With various types of interventions implemented, RMT generally improves pulmonary function and respiratory muscle strength among people with SCI. CONCLUSIONS: While research on RMT has been steadily increasing over the last 6 decades, more collaborations are encouraged in the future to produce more impactful and beneficial research on people who suffer from respiratory disorders.

How effective is alternating pressure (active) air surfaces for preventing pressure ulcers? A Cochrane Review summary with commentary.

BACKGROUND: Pressure ulcers may develop in people with impaired mobility, sensation, or cognition. Alternating pressure (active) air beds, overlays and mattresses are commonly used to prevent pressure ulcers. OBJECTIVE: This Cochrane Review aimed to determine the effects of alternating pressure (active) air beds, overlays or mattresses compared with any support surface in preventing pressure ulcers. METHODS: The population addressed was people at risk of and with existing pressure ulcers. Studies comparing alternating pressure (active) air surfaces with any beds, overlays or mattresses were included. The outcomes studied were pressure ulcer incidence, patient support-surface-associated comfort, adverse events, health-related quality of life and cost-effectiveness. RESULTS: There were 32 studies with a total of 9058 participants. There is low certainty evidence that alternating pressure (active) air surfaces compared with foam surfaces may reduce the incidence of pressure ulcers. It is uncertain whether there is a difference in the proportion of people developing new pressure ulcers between alternating pressure (active) air surfaces and reactive water-filled, fibre, air, gel or standard hospital surfaces. CONCLUSION: The use of alternating pressure (active) air surfaces may reduce the incidence of pressure ulcers compared to foam surfaces. However, it is uncertain if it is superior to reactive air surfaces, water surfaces and fiber surfaces in preventing pressure ulcers.

Impacts of Bladder Managements and Urinary Complications on Quality of Life: Cross-sectional Perspectives of Persons With Spinal Cord Injury Living in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand.

BACKGROUND: The impact of bladder care and urinary complications on quality of life in persons with spinal cord injury who have neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction has not been elucidated, especially in those living in low-resource countries. METHODS: This multinational cross-sectional survey was conducted in rehabilitation facilities in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. Community-dwelling adults with traumatic or nontraumatic spinal cord injury participating in the International Spinal Cord Injury Community Survey from 2017 to 2018 were enrolled. Data regarding bladder management/care, presence of bladder dysfunction, urinary tract infection, and quality of life score were extracted from the International Spinal Cord Injury Community Survey questionnaire. The impact of bladder care and urinary complications on quality of life was determined using univariable and multivariable regression analysis. RESULTS: Questionnaires from 770 adults were recruited for analysis. After adjusting for all demographic and spinal cord injury-related data, secondary conditions, as well as activity and participation factors, urinary tract infection was an independent negative predictive factor of quality of life score ( P = 0.007, unstandardized coefficients = -4.563, multivariable linear regression analysis, enter method). CONCLUSIONS: Among bladder care and urinary complication factors, urinary tract infection is the only factor negatively impacting quality of life. These results address the importance of proper bladder management and urinary tract infection prevention in persons with spinal cord injury to improve their quality of life.

Upper Extremity Functional Status in Patients with Chronic Tetraplegia in Universiti Malaya Medical Centre.

Background: Persons with tetraplegia rank improved upper extremity (UE) function as the most important rehabilitation outcome because it allows them greater independence in activities of daily living (ADL). The aim of this study was to describe UE status in patients with tetraplegia using the International Spinal Cord Injury Upper Extremity Basic Data Set version 1.1 (ISCI-UE 1.1) and to determine differences in UE status between tetraplegic individuals with traumatic and non-traumatic SCIs. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among patients with tetraplegia who attended the SCI rehabilitation clinic of a tertiary hospital from September 2021 to August 2022. Both upper limbs were assessed using ISCI-UE 1.1. Results: One hundred patients were included in this study, of whom 80 were men. The mean (SD) age of the patients was 54.30 (16.95) years old. In these patients, most SCIs (62%) were of traumatic origin. Two hundred UEs were evaluated, of which 109 showed good hand function (level 5) and 10 had the poorest hand function (level 1). Meanwhile, 130 UEs showed good shoulder function (level D) and 10 had the poorest shoulder function (level A). A statistically significant association with UE status (reach-and-grasp ability and shoulder function) was found in both the non-traumatic and traumatic SCI groups, with better hand and shoulder functions in the non-traumatic SCI group (right-hand, P = 0.004 and left hand, P = 0.001; right shoulder, P < 0.001 and left shoulder, P = 0.002). Conclusion: ISCI-UE 1.1 is a feasible tool for documenting UE function in patients with tetraplegia. Compared with the individuals with traumatic SCI in this study, those with non-traumatic SCI demonstrated better upper extremity functionality.

Healthcare service utilization patterns and patient experience in persons with spinal cord injury: a comparison across 22 countries.

BACKGROUND: Persons with spinal cord injury frequently visit numerous clinical settings. Such all-around experience of the system may serve as a comprehensive experience indicator. This study compared the patient experience of persons with chronic SCI in relation to healthcare service utilization patterns in 22 countries, hypothesizing that primary-care oriented patterns would offer a better experience. METHODS: This study was based on International Spinal Cord Injury Survey with 12,588 participants across 22 countries worldwide. Utilization patterns/clusters were identified by cluster analysis and experience score - by the partial credit model. The association between healthcare utilization and experience at the provider and cluster level was explored by regression analysis. RESULTS: The highest share of visits was to primary care physicians (18%) and rehabilitation physicians (16%). Utilization patterns had diverse orientations: from primary care to specialized and from inpatient to outpatient. The experience was reported as very good and good across different dimensions: 84% reported respectful treatment; 81% - clear explanations; 77% - involvement in decision making; 65% - satisfaction with care. The average experience score (0-100) was 64, highest - 74 (Brazil) and the lowest - 52 (Japan, South Korea). Service utilization at provider and at cluster levels were associated with patient experience, but no utilization pattern resulted in uniformly better patient experience. CONCLUSION: While there are distinct patterns between countries on how persons with chronic SCI navigate the healthcare system, we found that different utilization patterns led to similar patient experience. The observed difference in patient experience is likely determined by other contextual factors than service utilization.

Does pharmacological treatment of depression in people with a primary brain tumour bring any benefits? A Cochrane Review summary with commentary.

BACKGROUND: Persons with primary brain tumour can suffer from depression. Depression may hinder rehabilitation intervention leading to further deterioration of patient's health and functioning. OBJECTIVE: The Cochrane Review aimed to assess the effectiveness and adverse effects of pharmacological treatment of depression in people with a primary brain tumour. METHODS: A Cochrane Review by Beevers et al. was summarized with comments. RESULTS: The review did not find any eligible studies from the 2090 studies screened which included randomized controlled trials, cohort studies and case-control studies. CONCLUSIONS: There is no high-quality evidence as to whether pharmacological treatments for depression in people with primary brain tumours are either effective or harmful.

The impact of a pressure ulcer prevention educational program based on the health belief model for persons with spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Pre- and post- trial. OBJECTIVES: To determine the changes of health belief levels after a pressure ulcer (PrU) prevention educational program based on the Health Belief Model (HBM). SETTING: Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University Medical Centre, Malaysia. METHODS: This study was conducted between May 2016 and May 2018. We created a multidisciplinary structured PrU prevention education program based on the HBM, consisting of didactic lectures, open discussions and a practical session. The content of the program was based on several PrU prevention guidelines. The education program focused on a group of 6-10 participants, and was conducted by a multidisciplinary team; i.e. doctor, physiotherapist, occupational therapist and a nurse. The skin care belief scales (SCBS) questionnaire was administered pre, post and 8-week post intervention, which measured the 9 domains of HBM. The data from the study was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA to assess the effectiveness of the program. RESULTS: Thirty spinal cord injured participants who fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria completed this study. The results of the education program show statistically significant effects on Susceptibility; F (2,58) = 12.53, P < 0.05, Barriers to Skin Check Belief; F(2,58) = 5.74, P > 0.05, Benefits to Wheelchair Pressure Relief Belief; F(1.65,47.8) = 3.97, P < 0.05, Barriers to Turning and Positioning Belief; F(2,58) = 3.92, P < 0.05 and Self-Efficacy; F(1.7,49.11) = 4.7, P < 0.05. CONCLUSIONS: A structured HBM based education program is shown to improve health beliefs level in five SCBS domains. This education program is recommended for PrU prevention within the spinal cord injured population. IMPLICATIONS: A multidisciplinary structured HBM based education program may improve the current method of PrU prevention education.

Initial development and validation of a novel nutrition risk, sarcopenia, and frailty assessment tool in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: The NUTRIC-SF score.

BACKGROUND: Nutrition risk, sarcopenia, and frailty are interrelated. They may be due to suboptimal or prevented by optimal nutrition intake. The combination of nutrition risk (modified nutrition risk in the critically ill [mNUTRIC]), sarcopenia (SARC-F combined with calf circumference [SARC-CALF]), and frailty (clinical frailty scale [CFS]) in a single score may better predict adverse outcomes and prioritize resources for optimal nutrition in the intensive care unit (ICU) METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of a single-center prospective observational study that enrolled mechanically ventilated adults with expected ≥96 h of ICU stay. SARC-F and CFS questionnaires were administered to patient's next-of-kin and mNUTRIC were calculated. Right calf circumference was measured. Nutrition data were collected from nursing record. The high-risk scores (mNUTRIC ≥ 5, SARC-CALF > 10, or CFS ≥ 4) of these variables were combined to become the nutrition risk, sarcopenia, and frailty (NUTRIC-SF) score (range: 0-3). RESULTS: Eighty-eight patients were analyzed. Increasing mNUTRIC was independently associated with 60-day mortality, whereas increasing SARC-CALF and CFS showed a strong trend towards a higher 60-day mortality. Discriminative ability of NUTRIC-SF for 60-day mortality is better than its component (C-statistics, 0.722; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.677-0.868). Every increment of 300 kcal/day and 30 g/day is associated with a trend towards higher rate of discharge alive for high (≥2; adjusted hazard ratio, 1.453 [95% CI, 0.991-2.130] for energy; 1.503 [0.936-2.413] for protein) but not low (<2) NUTRIC-SF score. CONCLUSION: NUTRIC-SF may be a clinically relevant risk stratification tool in the ICU.

Evidence-Based Medicine Training in United States-Based Physiatry Residency Programs.

ABSTRACT: Although the physiatric community increasingly embraces evidence-based medicine (EBM), the current state of EBM training for trainees in physiatry is unclear. The purposes of this article are to report the results of the Association of Academic Physiatrists' surveys of physiatry residency programs in the United States, to discuss the implications of their findings, and to better delineate the "baseline" upon which sound and clear recommendations for systematic EBM training can be made. The two Association of Academic Physiatrists surveys of US physiatry residency programs reveal that most survey respondents report that they include EBM training in their programs that covers the five recommended steps of EBM core competencies. However, although most respondents reported using traditional pedagogic methods of training such as journal club, very few reported that their EBM training used a structured and systematic approach. Future work is needed to support and facilitate physiatry residency programs interested in adopting structured EBM training curricula that include recommended EBM core competencies and the evaluation of their impact.

Clinical effectiveness and components of Home-pulmonary rehabilitation for people with chronic respiratory diseases: a systematic review protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are common and disabling conditions that can result in social isolation and economic hardship for patients and their families. Pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) improves functional exercise capacity and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) but practical barriers to attending centre-based sessions or the need for infection control limits accessibility. Home-PR offers a potential solution that may improve access. We aim to systematically review the clinical effectiveness, completion rates and components of Home-PR for people with CRDs compared with Centre-PR or Usual care. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: We will search PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane, EMBASE, PeDRO and PsycInfo from January 1990 to date using a PICOS search strategy (Population: adults with CRDs; Intervention: Home-PR; Comparator: Centre-PR/Usual care; Outcomes: functional exercise capacity and HRQoL; Setting: any setting). The strategy is to search for 'Chronic Respiratory Disease' AND 'Pulmonary Rehabilitation' AND 'Home-PR', and identify relevant randomised controlled trials and controlled clinical trials. Six reviewers working in pairs will independently screen articles for eligibility and extract data from those fulfilling the inclusion criteria. We will use the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach to rate the quality of evidence. We will perform meta-analysis or narrative synthesis as appropriate to answer our three research questions: (1) what is the effectiveness of Home-PR compared with Centre-PR or Usual care? (2) what components are used in effective Home-PR studies? and (3) what is the completion rate of Home-PR compared with Centre-PR? ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Research ethics approval is not required since the study will review only published data. The findings will be disseminated through publication in a peer-reviewed journal and presentation in conferences. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42020220137.

The effect of higher versus lower protein delivery in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: The optimal protein dose in critical illness is unknown. We aim to conduct a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to compare the effect of higher versus lower protein delivery (with similar energy delivery between groups) on clinical and patient-centered outcomes in critically ill patients. METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL and CINAHL from database inception through April 1, 2021.We included RCTs of (1) adult (age ≥ 18) critically ill patients that (2) compared higher vs lower protein with (3) similar energy intake between groups, and (4) reported clinical and/or patient-centered outcomes. We excluded studies on immunonutrition. Two authors screened and conducted quality assessment independently and in duplicate. Random-effect meta-analyses were conducted to estimate the pooled risk ratio (dichotomized outcomes) or mean difference (continuous outcomes). RESULTS: Nineteen RCTs were included (n = 1731). Sixteen studies used primarily the enteral route to deliver protein. Intervention was started within 72 h of ICU admission in sixteen studies. The intervention lasted between 3 and 28 days. In 11 studies that reported weight-based nutrition delivery, the pooled mean protein and energy received in higher and lower protein groups were 1.31 ± 0.48 vs 0.90 ± 0.30 g/kg and 19.9 ± 6.9 versus 20.1 ± 7.1 kcal/kg, respectively. Higher vs lower protein did not significantly affect overall mortality [risk ratio 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.75-1.10, p = 0.34] or other clinical or patient-centered outcomes. In 5 small studies, higher protein significantly attenuated muscle loss (MD -3.44% per week, 95% CI -4.99 to -1.90; p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: In critically ill patients, a higher daily protein delivery was not associated with any improvement in clinical or patient-centered outcomes. Larger, and more definitive RCTs are needed to confirm the effect of muscle loss attenuation associated with higher protein delivery. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021237530.

Functional Outcomes in Spinal Tuberculosis: A Review of the Literature.

Spinal tuberculosis often leads to neurological deficit and subsequent deterioration in functional outcomes. This review assesses the recent evidence on functional outcomes in spinal tuberculosis, highlighting functional recovery, assessment tools for functional measures, and associative factors for functional recovery. Using PubMed, a literature search was done using the terms "spinal tuberculosis," "tuberculous spondylitis," "tuberculous spondylodiscitis," and "functional outcome" for original articles published between January 2010 and December 2019. A total of 191 search results were found. Detailed screening showed that 19 articles met the eligibility criteria: 13 of these focused on surgical methods, four on conservative management, and two on rehabilitation approaches. The outcome measures used for functional assessment were the Oswestry Disability Index (11 articles), Japanese Orthopaedic Association score (n=3), modified Barthel Index (n=2), Functional Independence Measure (n=2), and 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (n=1). Functional outcome was mainly affected by pain, spinal cord compression, and inpatient rehabilitation. No significant difference in functional outcome was found between conservative management and surgery for cases with uncomplicated spinal tuberculosis. Most studies focused on surgery as the mode of treatment and used pain-related functional measures; however, these assessed functional limitations secondary to pain, and not neurological deficits. Further studies may consider examining functional outcomes in spinal tuberculosis by utilizing spinal cord-specific functional outcome measures, to evaluate outcome measures as a prognostic tool, and to measure functional outcomes from specific rehabilitation interventions.