Triple network model of brain connectivity changes related to adverse mood effects in an oral contraceptive placebo-controlled trial.

Combined oral contraceptives (COC) are among the most commonly used contraceptive methods worldwide, and mood side effects are the major reason for discontinuation of treatment. We here investigate the directed connectivity patterns associated with the mood side effects of an androgenic COC in a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled trial in women with a history of affective COC side effects (n = 34). We used spectral dynamic causal modeling on a triple network model consisting of the default mode network (DMN), salience network (SN) and executive control network (ECN). Within this framework, we assessed the treatment-related changes in directed connectivity associated with adverse mood side effects. Overall, during COC use, we found a pattern of enhanced connectivity within the DMN and decreased connectivity within the ECN. The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (SN) mediates an increased recruitment of the DMN by the ECN during treatment. Mood lability was the most prominent COC-induced symptom and also arose as the side effect most consistently related to connectivity changes. Connections that were related to increased mood lability showed increased connectivity during COC treatment, while connections that were related to decreased mood lability showed decreased connectivity during COC treatment. Among these, the connections with the highest effect size could also predict the participants' treatment group above chance.

Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex activity during cognitive challenge in social anxiety disorder.

BACKGROUND: Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is associated with aberrant emotional information processing while little is known about non-emotional cognitive processing biases. The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) has been implicated in SAD neuropathology and is activated both by emotional and non-affective cognitive challenges like the Multisource Interference Task (MSIT). METHODS: Here, we used fMRI to compare dACC activity and test performance during MSIT in 69 SAD patients and 38 healthy controls. In addition to patient-control comparisons, we examined whether neural activity in the dACC correlated with social anxiety, trait anxiety or depression levels. RESULTS: The MSIT activated the dACC as expected but with no differences in task performance or neural reactivity between SAD patients and controls. There were no significant correlations between dACC activity and social or trait anxiety symptom severity. In patients, there was a significant negative correlation between dACC activity and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: In absence of affective challenge, we found no disorder-related cognitive profile in SAD patients since neither MSIT task performance nor dACC neural activity deviated in patients relative to controls.

Serotonin and dopamine transporter availability in social anxiety disorder after combined treatment with escitalopram and cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (ICBT) are recommended treatments of social anxiety disorder (SAD), and often combined, but their effects on monoaminergic signaling are not well understood. In this multi-tracer positron emission tomography (PET) study, 24 patients with SAD were randomized to treatment with escitalopram+ICBT or placebo+ICBT under double-blind conditions. Before and after 9 weeks of treatment, patients were examined with positron emission tomography and the radioligands [11C]DASB and [11C]PE2I, probing the serotonin (SERT) and dopamine (DAT) transporter proteins respectively. Both treatment combinations resulted in significant improvement as measured by the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS). At baseline, SERT-DAT co-expression was high and, in the putamen and thalamus, co-expression showed positive associations with symptom severity. SERT-DAT co-expression was also predictive of treatment success, but predictor-outcome associations differed in direction between the treatments. After treatment, average SERT occupancy in the SSRI + ICBT group was >80%, with positive associations between symptom improvement and occupancy in the nucleus accumbens, putamen and anterior cingulate cortex. Following placebo+ICBT, SERT binding increased in the raphe nuclei. DAT binding increased in both groups in limbic and striatal areas, but relations with symptom improvement differed, being negative for SSRI + ICBT and positive for placebo + ICBT. Thus, serotonin-dopamine transporter co-expression exerts influence on symptom severity and remission rate in the treatment of social anxiety disorder. However, the monoamine transporters are modulated in dissimilar ways when cognitive-behavioral treatment is given concomitantly with either SSRI-medication or pill placebo.

Postpartum Gray Matter Changes in the Auditory Cortex.

After giving birth, a mother's brain undergoes functional adaptations fostering the ability to properly respond to the needs of her newborn. Tuning into and understanding her baby's crying is among the top skills required and executed in the early stages of motherhood. However, surprisingly little is known about potential changes in the anatomy of the maternal auditory cortex. Therefore, in this longitudinal study, we compared the brains of 14 healthy women between immediate postpartum (within 1-2 days of childbirth) and late postpartum (at 4-6 weeks after childbirth), focusing on areas of the primary, secondary, and higher auditory cortex. We observed significant volume increases within all auditory regions and subregions examined, which might reflect rapid adaptations of the mother's brain in relation to reliably interpreting her newborn's cries. There was also a trend for a larger postpartum increase within right-hemispheric regions compared to left-hemispheric regions that might be specifically linked to the ability to discern the pitch, sound, and volume of a baby's crying. Follow-up research is warranted to replicate these findings and evaluate their current interpretation.

Significant increases of the amygdala between immediate and late postpartum: Pronounced effects within the superficial subregion.

Research exploring the underlying neuroanatomical correlates of early motherhood seems to suggest that the period after giving birth is marked by tissue increases in the mother's brain. While some studies point to the amygdala as one of the areas undergoing postpartum changes, existing analyses did not discriminate between the different subregions of this functionally heterogeneous structure. Thus, to further extend this understudied field of research and to better understand the potential role of the amygdala when transitioning to motherhood, we applied an advanced region-of-interest technique that enabled us to analyze the amygdala as a whole as well as its different subareas, specifically the left and right centromedian (CM), laterobasal (LB), and superficial (SF) regions. Comparing the brains of 14 healthy women between immediate postpartum (within 1-2 days of childbirth) and late postpartum (at 4-6 weeks after childbirth), we revealed increases of the amygdala. However, effects manifested differentially across subareas, with particularly strong effects for the SF region, moderate effects for the CM region, and no effects for the LB region. These findings might reflect region-specific adaptations of the mother's brain tuning into the distinct and ever-changing needs of a newborn, either as a cause for it or as a consequence thereof.

Gray matter increases within subregions of the hippocampal complex after pregnancy.

Neuroimaging findings - although still relatively sparse in the realm of postpartum research - suggest significant tissue increases within the hippocampus or its vicinity after giving birth. Given that the hippocampus is not a homogenous structure, effects may manifest differently across the hippocampal complex. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine the presence, magnitude, and direction of postpartum gray matter changes within five hippocampal subregions, specifically the dentate gyrus, the subiculum, and the subfields of the cornu ammonis (CA1, CA2 and CA3). For this purpose, we analyzed brain images of 14 healthy women acquired at immediate postpartum (within 1-2 days of childbirth) and at late postpartum (at 4-6 weeks after childbirth). Changes in hippocampal gray matter between both time points were calculated for all subregions as well as the hippocampal complex as a whole by integrating imaging-based intensity information with microscopically defined cytoarchitectonic probabilities. Hippocampal gray matter increased significantly within the right subiculum, right CA2, and right CA3. These findings may suggest that brain tissue lost during pregnancy is being restored after giving birth, perhaps even expanded compared to before pregnancy. Possible events on the microanatomical level include dendritic branching as well as the generation of new synapses, glia cells, and blood vessels. Altogether, the outcomes of our study confirm that hippocampal gray matter increases in the female human brain after giving birth, with differential effects across the hippocampal complex.

Higher- and lower-order personality traits and cluster subtypes in social anxiety disorder.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) can come in different forms, presenting problems for diagnostic classification. Here, we examined personality traits in a large sample of patients (N = 265) diagnosed with SAD in comparison to healthy controls (N = 164) by use of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and Karolinska Scales of Personality (KSP). In addition, we identified subtypes of SAD based on cluster analysis of the NEO-PI-R Big Five personality dimensions. Significant group differences in personality traits between patients and controls were noted on all Big Five dimensions except agreeableness. Group differences were further noted on most lower-order facets of NEO-PI-R, and nearly all KSP variables. A logistic regression analysis showed, however, that only neuroticism and extraversion remained significant independent predictors of patient/control group when controlling for the effects of the other Big Five dimensions. Also, only neuroticism and extraversion yielded large effect sizes when SAD patients were compared to Swedish normative data for the NEO-PI-R. A two-step cluster analysis resulted in three separate clusters labelled Prototypical (33%), Introvert-Conscientious (29%), and Instable-Open (38%) SAD. Individuals in the Prototypical cluster deviated most on the Big Five dimensions and they were at the most severe end in profile analyses of social anxiety, self-rated fear during public speaking, trait anxiety, and anxiety-related KSP variables. While additional studies are needed to determine if personality subtypes in SAD differ in etiological and treatment-related factors, the present results demonstrate considerable personality heterogeneity in socially anxious individuals, further underscoring that SAD is a multidimensional disorder.

From baby brain to mommy brain: Widespread gray matter gain after giving birth.

Pregnancy results in obvious physiological changes to the female body, but data as to what happens to the maternal brain after giving birth are sparse as well as inconsistent. The overall goal of this study is to determine the nature of cerebral change in the postpartum period. For this purpose, we analyzed T1-weighted brain images of 14 healthy women (age range: 25-38 years) at two time points, specifically within 1-2 days of childbirth (immediate postpartum) and at 4-6 weeks after childbirth (late postpartum). When comparing voxel-wise gray matter between these two time points, there was no evidence of any significant decrease. Instead, we detected a pronounced gray matter increase involving both cortical and subcortical regions, such as the pre- and postcentral gyrus, the frontal and central operculum, the inferior frontal gyrus, the precuneus, and the middle occipital gyrus, as well as the thalamus and caudate. These structural changes occurring within only 4-6 weeks after delivery are reflective of a high degree of neuroplasticity and massive adaptations in the maternal brain. They may suggest a restoration of brain tissue following pregnancy and/or a substantial brain reorganization, possibly to accommodate a multi-faceted repertoire of complex behaviors associated with being a mother.

Neuroimaging, genetic, clinical, and demographic predictors of treatment response in patients with social anxiety disorder.

BACKGROUND: Correct prediction of treatment response is a central goal of precision psychiatry. Here, we tested the predictive accuracy of a variety of pre-treatment patient characteristics, including clinical, demographic, molecular genetic, and neuroimaging markers, for treatment response in patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD). METHODS: Forty-seven SAD patients (mean±SD age 33.9 ±â€¯9.4 years, 24 women) were randomized and commenced 9 weeks' Internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) combined either with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) escitalopram (20 mg daily [10 mg first week], SSRI+CBT, n = 24) or placebo (placebo+CBT, n = 23). Treatment responders were defined from the Clinical Global Impression-Improvement scale (CGI-I ≤ 2). Before treatment, patients underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging and the Multi-Source Interference Task taxing cognitive interference. Support vector machines (SVMs) were trained to separate responders from nonresponders based on pre-treatment neural reactivity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), amygdala, and occipital cortex, as well as molecular genetic, demographic, and clinical data. SVM models were tested using leave-one-subject-out cross-validation. RESULTS: The best model separated treatment responders (n = 24) from nonresponders based on pre-treatment dACC reactivity (83% accuracy, P = 0.001). Responders had greater pre-treatment dACC reactivity than nonresponders especially in the SSRI+CBT group. No other variable was associated with clinical response or added predictive accuracy to the dACC SVM model. LIMITATIONS: Small sample size, especially for genetic analyses. No replication or validation samples were available. CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate that treatment outcome predictions based on neural cingulate activity, at the individual level, outperform genetic, demographic, and clinical variables for medication-assisted Internet-delivered CBT, supporting the use of neuroimaging in precision psychiatry.

Potential Brain Age Reversal after Pregnancy: Younger Brains at 4-6 Weeks Postpartum.

Pregnancy is accompanied by complex biological adaptations, including extreme hormonal fluctuations. Moreover, changes on the endocrine level are accompanied by changes in cerebral anatomy, such as reductions in brain or gray matter volume. Since declining brain and tissue volumes are characteristic for normal aging, the question arises of whether such pregnancy-induced anatomical effects are permanent or transient. To answer this question, we acquired high-resolution brain image data of 14 healthy women in their mid-twenties to late thirties at two time points: within 1-2 days of childbirth (early postpartum) and at 4-6 weeks after childbirth (late postpartum). At both time points, we estimated the brain ages for each woman using a well-validated machine learning approach based on pattern recognition. Ultimately, this algorithm - designed to identify anatomical correlates of age across the entire brain - reveals a single score for each individual: the BrainAGE index. Comparing the BrainAGE indices between both time points, female brains at late postpartum were estimated to be considerably younger than at early postpartum. On average, that difference was about five years (mean ±â€¯SD: 5.4 ±â€¯2.4 years). These findings suggest a substantial restoration/rejuvenation effect after giving birth, which is evident already within the first couple of months.

Anterior cingulate cortex activity as a candidate biomarker for treatment selection in social anxiety disorder.

We aimed to identify biomarkers to guide the decision to add selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) to psychological treatment for social anxiety disorder (SAD). Forty-eight patients with SAD underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging and collection of clinical and demographic variables before treatment with cognitive-behavioural therapy, combined on a double-blind basis with either escitalopram or placebo for 9 weeks. Pre-treatment neural reactivity to aversive faces in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), but not clinical/demographic variables, moderated clinical outcomes. Cross-validated individual-level predictions accurately identified 81% of responders/non-responders. Dorsal ACC reactivity is thus a potential biomarker for SAD treatment selection. DECLARATION OF INTEREST: None.

Hormonal Cycle and Contraceptive Effects on Amygdala and Salience Resting-State Networks in Women with Previous Affective Side Effects on the Pill.

The mechanisms linking ovarian hormones to negative affect are poorly characterized, but important clues may come from the examination of the brain's intrinsic organization. Here, we studied the effects of both the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives (OCs) on amygdala and salience network resting-state functional connectivity using a double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled design. Hormone levels, depressive symptoms, and resting-state functional connectivity were measured in 35 healthy women (24.9±4.2 years) who had previously experienced OC-related negative affect. All participants were examined in the follicular phase of a baseline cycle and in the third week of the subsequent cycle during treatment with either a combined OC (30 µg ethinyl estradiol/0.15 mg levonorgestrel) or placebo. The latter time point targeted the midluteal phase in placebo users and steady-state ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel concentrations in OC users. Amygdala and salience network connectivity generally increased with both higher endogenous and synthetic hormone levels, although amygdala-parietal cortical connectivity decreased in OC users. When in the luteal phase, the naturally cycling placebo users demonstrated higher connectivity in both networks compared with the women receiving OCs. Our results support a causal link between the exogenous administration of synthetic hormones and amygdala and salience network connectivity. Furthermore, they suggest a similar, potentially stronger, association between the natural hormonal variations across the menstrual cycle and intrinsic network connectivity.

Do You Believe It? Verbal Suggestions Influence the Clinical and Neural Effects of Escitalopram in Social Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly prescribed for depression and anxiety, but their efficacy relative to placebo has been questioned. We aimed to test how manipulation of verbally induced expectancies, central for placebo, influences SSRI treatment outcome and brain activity in patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD). METHODS: We did a randomized clinical trial, within an academic medical center (Uppsala, Sweden), of individuals fulfilling the DSM-IV criteria for SAD, recruited through media advertising. Participants were 18years or older and randomized in blocks, through a computer-generated sequence by an independent party, to nine weeks of overt or covert treatment with escitalopram (20mg daily). The overt group received correct treatment information whereas the covert group was treated deceptively with the SSRI described, by the psychiatrist, as active placebo. The treating psychiatrist was necessarily unmasked while the research staff was masked from intervention assignment. Treatment efficacy was assessed primarily with the self-rated Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS-SR), administered at week 0, 1, 3, 6 and 9, also yielding a dichotomous estimate of responder status (clinically significant improvement). Before and at the last week of treatment, brain activity during an emotional face-matching task was assessed with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and during fMRI sessions, anticipatory speech anxiety was also assessed with the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - State version (STAI-S). Analyses included all randomized patients with outcome data at posttreatment. This study is registered at ISRCTN, number 98890605. FINDINGS: Between March 17th 2014 and May 22nd 2015, 47 patients were recruited. One patient in the covert group dropped out after a few days of treatment and did not provide fMRI data, leaving 46 patients with complete outcome data. After nine weeks of treatment, overt (n=24) as compared to covert (n=22) SSRI administration yielded significantly better outcome on the LSAS-SR (adjusted difference 21.17, 95% CI 10.69-31.65, p<0.0001) with more than three times higher response rate (50% vs. 14%; χ2(1)=6.91, p=0.009) and twice the effect size (d=2.24 vs. d=1.13) from pre-to posttreatment. There was no significant between-group difference on anticipatory speech anxiety (STAI-S), both groups improving with treatment. No serious adverse reactions were recorded. On fMRI outcomes, there was suggestive evidence for a differential neural response to treatment between groups in the posterior cingulate, superior temporal and inferior frontal gyri (all z thresholds exceeding 3.68, p≤0.001). Reduced social anxiety with treatment correlated significantly with enhanced posterior cingulate (z threshold 3.24, p=0.0006) and attenuated amygdala (z threshold 2.70, p=0.003) activity. INTERPRETATION: The clinical and neural effects of escitalopram were markedly influenced by verbal suggestions. This points to a pronounced placebo component in SSRI-treatment of SAD and favors a biopsychosocial over a biomedical explanatory model for SSRI efficacy. FUNDING RESOURCES: The Swedish Research Council for Working Life and Social Research (grant 2011-1368), the Swedish Research Council (grant 421-2013-1366), Riksbankens Jubileumsfond - the Swedish Foundation for Humanities and Social Sciences (grant P13-1270:1).

Emotional anticipation after delivery - a longitudinal neuroimaging study of the postpartum period.

Neuroimaging research has begun to unveil the mechanisms behind emotion processing during the postpartum period, which, in turn, may be of relevance for the development of postpartum depression. The present study sought to longitudinally investigate the neural correlates of emotion anticipation during the postpartum period in healthy women. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was employed to measure the blood oxygen level-dependent signal in the brain in response to anticipation of negative emotional stimuli and during processing of images with positive or negative valence. The participating women were scanned twice: the first scan occurred during the first 48 hours after delivery, and the second was performed 4-6 weeks after delivery. The early postpartum period was characterized by higher anterior cingulate cortex reactivity during anticipation of negative emotional stimuli than the late postpartum period. This was accompanied by a negative relationship with insular reactivity during the early postpartum period and a trend towards an increase in insular reactivity in the late postpartum period. Thus, during the first four weeks of the postpartum period, a diminished top-down regulatory feedback on emotion-related areas of the brain was noted. This finding suggests a physiologically important adaptation during the healthy postpartum period.

Development of a clinically feasible [11C]PE2I PET method for differential diagnosis of parkinsonism using reduced scan duration and automated reference region extraction.

[11C]PE2I is a highly selective dopamine transporter PET ligand. Parametric images based on dynamic [11C]PE2I scans, showing dopamine transporter availability (BPND) and relative cerebral blood flow (R1), can be used in differential diagnosis of parkinsonism. This work aimed to investigate a shortened scan duration and automated generation of parametric images which are two prerequisites for routine clinical application. Twelve subjects with parkinsonism and seventeen healthy controls underwent 80 min dynamic [11C]PE2I PET scans. BPND and R1 images were generated using cerebellum reference region defined on a co-registered MRI, as well as a supervised cluster analysis (SVCA)-based reference. Initial 20, 30 and 40 min of the scans were extracted and images of standardized uptake value ratio (SUVR) and R1 were computed using MRI- and SVCA-based reference. Correlation was high between striatal 80 min MRI-based BPND and 40 min SVCA-based SUVR-1 (R2=0.95). High correlation was also found between R1 values in striatal and limbic regions (R2≥0.91) whereas correlation was moderate for cortical regions (R2=0.71). The results indicate that dynamic [11C]PE2I scans can be restricted to 40 min and that SVCA can be used for automatic extraction of a reference region. These outcomes will support routine applications of [11C]PE2I PET in clinical settings.

Voxel-based morphometry multi-center mega-analysis of brain structure in social anxiety disorder.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a prevalent and disabling mental disorder, associated with significant psychiatric co-morbidity. Previous research on structural brain alterations associated with SAD has yielded inconsistent results concerning the direction of the changes in gray matter (GM) in various brain regions, as well as on the relationship between brain structure and SAD-symptomatology. These heterogeneous findings are possibly due to limited sample sizes. Multi-site imaging offers new opportunities to investigate SAD-related alterations in brain structure in larger samples. An international multi-center mega-analysis on the largest database of SAD structural T1-weighted 3T MRI scans to date was performed to compare GM volume of SAD-patients (n = 174) and healthy control (HC)-participants (n = 213) using voxel-based morphometry. A hypothesis-driven region of interest (ROI) approach was used, focusing on the basal ganglia, the amygdala-hippocampal complex, the prefrontal cortex, and the parietal cortex. SAD-patients had larger GM volume in the dorsal striatum when compared to HC-participants. This increase correlated positively with the severity of self-reported social anxiety symptoms. No SAD-related differences in GM volume were present in the other ROIs. Thereby, the results of this mega-analysis suggest a role for the dorsal striatum in SAD, but previously reported SAD-related changes in GM in the amygdala, hippocampus, precuneus, prefrontal cortex and parietal regions were not replicated. Our findings emphasize the importance of large sample imaging studies and the need for meta-analyses like those performed by the Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) Consortium.

Combining escitalopram and cognitive-behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder: randomised controlled fMRI trial.

BACKGROUND: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) are often used concomitantly to treat social anxiety disorder (SAD), but few studies have examined the effect of this combination. AIMS: To evaluate whether adding escitalopram to internet-delivered CBT (ICBT) improves clinical outcome and alters brain reactivity and connectivity in SAD. METHOD: Double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled neuroimaging trial of ICBT combined either with escitalopram (n = 24) or placebo (n = 24), including a 15-month clinical follow-up (trial registration: ISRCTN24929928). RESULTS: Escitalopram+ICBT, relative to placebo+ICBT, resulted in significantly more clinical responders, larger reductions in anticipatory speech state anxiety at post-treatment and larger reductions in social anxiety symptom severity at 15-month follow-up and at a trend-level (P = 0.09) at post-treatment. Right amygdala reactivity to emotional faces also decreased more in the escitalopram+ICBT combination relative to placebo+ICBT, and in treatment responders relative to non-responders. CONCLUSIONS: Adding escitalopram improves the outcome of ICBT for SAD and decreased amygdala reactivity is important for anxiolytic treatment response.

Amygdala subnuclei resting-state functional connectivity sex and estrogen differences.

The amygdala is a hub in emotional processing, including that of negative affect. Healthy men and women have distinct differences in amygdala responses, potentially setting the stage for the observed sex differences in the prevalence of fear, anxiety, and pain disorders. Here, we examined how amygdala subnuclei resting-state functional connectivity is affected by sex, as well as explored how the functional connectivity is related to estrogen levels. Resting-state functional connectivity was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with seeds placed in the left and right laterobasal (LB) and centromedial (CM) amygdala. Sex differences were studied in 48 healthy men and 48 healthy women, matched for age, while the association with estrogen was analyzed in a subsample of 24 women, for whom hormone levels had been assessed. For the hormone analyses, the subsample was further divided into a lower and higher estrogen levels group based on a median split. We found distinct sex differences in the LB and CM amygdala resting-state functional connectivity, as well as preliminary evidence for an association between estrogen levels and connectivity patterns. These results are potentially valuable in explaining why women are more afflicted by conditions of negative affect than are men, and could imply a mechanistic role for estrogen in modulating emotion.

The effect of combined hormonal contraceptives use on brain reactivity during response inhibition.

OBJECTIVES: Cognitive control, which can be described as the ability to moderate impulses, has not previously been investigated in users of combined hormonal contraception (CHC). Given the suggested modulatory role of ovarian steroids in prefrontal dopaminergic function, which in turn taps into cognitive control, this randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled oral contraceptive trial set out to investigate the brain activity pattern during response inhibition in CHC users. METHODS: Thirty-four women were randomised to one treatment cycle with a levonorgestrel-containing CHC or placebo. The women performed a Go/NoGo task to measure brain activity during response inhibition by use of event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) prior to and during the CHC/placebo treatment cycle. RESULTS: No differences between CHC and placebo users in number of correct inhibitions were found during treatment, but only women on CHC significantly improved their performance between the baseline and treatment assessments. During the treatment cycle CHC users displayed decreased activity in the right middle frontal gyrus in comparison with placebo users. No other significant activations were evident between treatment groups or within groups. CONCLUSION: Overall, CHC use had marginal effects on brain activity during response inhibition. If anything, the findings of the study may suggest reduced effort or increased efficiency in maintaining orbitofrontal cortex inhibitory cognitive control when using a combined oral contraceptive.

Disruption of Memory Reconsolidation Erases a Fear Memory Trace in the Human Amygdala: An 18-Month Follow-Up.

Fear memories can be attenuated by reactivation followed by disrupted reconsolidation. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging we recently showed that reactivation and reconsolidation of a conditioned fear memory trace in the basolateral amygdala predicts subsequent fear expression over two days, while reactivation followed by disrupted reconsolidation abolishes the memory trace and suppresses fear. In this follow-up study we demonstrate that the behavioral effect persists over 18 months reflected in superior reacquisition after undisrupted, as compared to disrupted reconsolidation, and that neural activity in the basolateral amygdala representing the initial fear memory predicts return of fear. We conclude that disrupting reconsolidation have long lasting behavioral effects and may permanently erase the fear component of an amygdala-dependent memory.