Social issues relating to Vladimir Bekhterev's concept of reflexology: a hitherto underestimated aspect of his work.

This article investigates the diversity of social and political assertions in the work of Vladimir M Bekhterev. Its findings reveal that he drew social and political conclusions based on his doctrine of reflexology. Moreover, he propagated the use of statistical investigations by scientific and governmental institutions to estimate the social and healthcare needs of the population. These conclusions accord with Bekhterev's desire for a transformation of society that would bring continued progress to people's social and living conditions. Additionally, the findings of this research work also support the idea that Bekhterev should be regarded as an important protagonist of neuroethics, a relatively recent field of research.

On the origins of the concept of 'latent schizophrenia' in Russian psychiatry.

In the mid-twentieth century in the Soviet Union, latent schizophrenia became an important concept and a matter of research and also of punitive psychiatry. This article investigates precursor concepts in early Russian psychiatry of the nineteenth century, and examines whether - as claimed in recent literature - Russian and Soviet research on latent schizophrenia was mainly influenced by the work of Eugen Bleuler.

[Russian Alienists and Neurologists at German universities in the 19th century]. / Russische Psychiater und Neurologen im 19. Jahrhundert an deutschen Universitäten.

So far, there have only been a small number of publications that provide an overview of the German-Russian scientific exchange in the fields of psychiatry and neurology during the 19th century. By evaluating a bio-bibliographic lexicon created within the framework of a project of the Saxon Academy of Sciences, it has been possible to examine in detail this exchange of scientific knowledge for the first time, focusing on 357 19th century Russian and German psychiatrists and neurologists. The present article is an excerpt from this work. It turns out that Russian representatives from both fields frequently visited German hospitals and institutions. These stays provided the prelude to an independent Russian development of the two disciplines which subsequently enriched science with its own innovations, on both the professional and the organizational level.

[In quest of objectivity - The concept of reflexology as an attempt towards a mechanistic doctrine of psychics]. / Auf der Suche nach Objektivität ­ das Reflexologie-Konzept als Versuch einer mechanistischen Seelenkunde.

The concept of reflexology had been mainly developed in Russia in the first three decades of the 20th century. It could be regarded as a distinct and universal concept which was to explain both psychic diseases, healthy conditions, and psychology of masses. Moreover, it had been influenced behaviourism and, likewise, was an answer for the search of an objective method for investigation of the psyche. Main protagonists were Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev and Naum Efimovich Ishlondsky (Ischlondsky) whose works underwent international dissemination.

Naum Efimovich Ischlondsky: a forgotten protagonist of the concept of reflexology.

The present article reports on the life and work of a protagonist of the concept of reflexology. While the concept itself has its roots in Russia, in Ivan Petrovich Pavlov's research on conditioned reflexes, and was then shaped to a large extent by Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, the contributions of Naum Efimovich Ischlondsky (Ishlondsky) have been largely forgotten. Moreover, he developed this concept throughout his life up to the 1960s, by which time he was living in the USA. In contrast, in the Soviet Union, the concepts of reflexology based on the work of Bechterev and his followers had already been abandoned by the 1930s for largely political reasons.

[Vladimir Bekhterev - A Protagonist of Research on Hypnosis?] / Vladimir Bechterev ­ ein Protagonist der Hypnoseforschung?

Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927) is considered to be Russia's most famous neurologist and psychiatrist. In German-speaking countries his name is particularly connected with the orthopaedic disease ankylosing spondylitis or Bekhterev's disease. He mainly worked in neuroanatomical, physiological and psychiatric fields. In a late autobiographical script, Bekhterev saw himself primarily as the protagonist of Russian research on hypnosis and hypnotherapy. That is why this article scrutinizes important works by Bekhterev in the field of hypnosis and reveals how these have influenced his late work on reflexology.

Some comparative psychiatric studies in the 19th century.

This article analyses 19th-century publications which dealt with the social and cultural aspects of psychiatric disorders in different parts of the world. Systematic reviews were conducted of three German medical journals, one Russian medical journal, and a relevant monograph. All these archives were published in the 19th century. Our work highlights the fact that long before Kraepelin, several, mostly forgotten, publications had already discussed cultural aspects, social conditions, the influence of religion, the influence of climate, and also "race" as a trigger or amplifier of psychiatric diseases. These publications also reflect racist notions of the colonial period.

[Emil Kraepelin's time in Dorpat - Did this stay made marks in Russian and Soviet psychiatry?] / Die Dorpater Zeit von Emil Kraepelin ­ Hinterließ dieser Aufenthalt Spuren in der russischen und sowjetischen Psychiatrie?

In Russia, German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) is regarded as an influential and famous personality in the history of the field. This study discusses whether it was his period in the Russian Empire in the years 1886 to 1891 when he worked at Dorpat University (today Tartu, Estonia) that raised his popularity in Russia. Our research shows that all of his writings which had been translated into Russian language derive from a period much later than Dorpat. Moreover, none of his students has ever reached a scientific position which would have enabled him to become a proponent of Kraepelin's ideas in Russia. Despite his stay at Dorpat was important for Kraepelin's scientific development, it had no major impact on Russian psychiatry.The later perception of Kraepelin in Russia and in the Soviet Union is quite inconsistent. At some point of time, his works on experimental psychology were appreciated, which was probably connected with the rise of reflexology in Russian and, especially, Soviet psychiatry. On the other hand, it was Kraepelin's merits in the classification of psychiatric diseases that have mainly been acknowledged.

[19th century Russian research about collective behavior]. / Russische Forschungen zur Massenpsychologie aus dem 19. Jahrhundert.

In the 19th century, collective behavior or crowd psychology was given a broad interest in psychiatric research. But until today the focus had always been on French, English or German publications neglecting the comprehensive Russian research that exists. That's why, the authors wish to elaborate 19th century Russian points of view on crowd psychology.Our research revealed that most of the Russian authors discussed imitation, suggestion, and hereditary predisposition - as did their colleagues in the West. Contrary to that, the 1881 monograph by Viktor Kandinsky could be regarded as an outstanding work because it presents an independent hypothesis on crowd psychology. Kandinsky postulated a gradual transition from normal to pathological based on neuro-anatomical und physiological presumptions. He postulated a causal chain which starts with exaltation followed by ecstasy, illusions, and at least hallucinations. He regarded exaltation to be a precondition in which a person accepts notions uncritically. Thus, in an exalted crowd one person that hallucinates may "infect" the others easily. People prone to mysticism, with a passion for mysterious things or on outstanding skills would be at a high risk of being infected. On the other hand, Kandinsky's hypothesis also implies that no one is exempt from such infection.

Bipolar affective disorder and migraine.

This paper consists of a case history and an overview of the relationship, aetiology, and treatment of comorbid bipolar disorder migraine patients. A MEDLINE literature search was used. Terms for the search were bipolar disorder bipolar depression, mania, migraine, mood stabilizer. Bipolar disorder and migraine cooccur at a relatively high rate. Bipolar II patients seem to have a higher risk of comorbid migraine than bipolar I patients have. The literature on the common roots of migraine and bipolar disorder, including both genetic and neuropathological approaches, is broadly discussed. Moreover, bipolar disorder and migraine are often combined with a variety of other affective disorders, and, furthermore, behavioural factors also play a role in the origin and course of the diseases. Approach to treatment options is also difficult. Several papers point out possible remedies, for example, valproate, topiramate, which acts on both diseases, but no first-choice treatments have been agreed upon yet.

Adolf von Strümpell: a key yet neglected protagonist of neurology.

German internist and neurologist Adolf von Strümpell (1853-1925) was a leading figure in German neurosciences around 1900 and helped to establish neurology as a discipline in its own right. He made contributions that were crucial to the development of the subject and in many cases his were the first descriptions of complex diseases such as Bechterew disease (ankylosing spondylitis), primary lateral sclerosis, hereditary spastic paraplegia, and syphilis. His Textbook of Special Pathology and Therapy of Internal Diseases, published in English as Text-book of Medicine for Students and Practitioners, and in particular the subvolume on neurological diseases, were the guiding manuals for the training in neurology for decades. However, despite his pioneering achievements, his name has almost become unknown within medical terminology. This article, therefore, wishes to revive an awareness not only of the most important stages in Strümpell's life in Erlangen, Leipzig, Breslau (Wroclaw), and Vienna, but also of his scientific achievements, focusing primarily on his neurological studies. To this end, the article reviews his most important publications on the subject and seeks to evaluate their and hence Strümpell's impact on the understanding of certain illnesses.

Bipolar affective disorder and Parkinson's disease.

Little is known about comorbidities of bipolar disorder such as Parkinson's disease. A case history and a literature survey indicate that bipolar disorder is linked with or influences Parkinson's disease and vice versa. Underlying mechanisms are poorly understood, and, more importantly, no treatment options are established in such double diagnoses. The few data in comorbid Parkinson cases seem to point to a rapid cycling pattern of bipolar symptoms. With regard to therapeutic intervention, the literature supports pramipexole for treatment of both Parkinson and depressive symptoms in bipolar depression. Lithium, the mood stabilizer of choice for treating manic states, is problematical for use in Parkinson patients because of its side effects. Valproate might be an alternative, especially for treatment of rapid cycling.

Mania and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: common symptomatology, common pathophysiology and common treatment?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and mania show broad symptom overlap, and high comorbidity exists between ADHD and bipolar disorder. This raises the question concerning common neurobiological pathomechanisms and concerning common treatments. RECENT FINDINGS: On genetic, biochemical, electrophysiological, brain morphological and neuropsychological levels, the commonalities of ADHD and mania and the commonalities between ADHD and bipolar disorder (independent of manic state) are outlined. An intriguing finding is that both ADHD and mania are characterized by an unstable wakefulness regulation assessed by EEG measures of vigilance, by ratings of sleepiness and by deficits in sustained attention tasks. In both mania and ADHD, this unstable wakefulness regulation is supposed to be a central pathogenetic factor leading to attention deficits and inducing the hyperactive, impulsive and sensation-seeking behavior as an autoregulatory attempt to stabilize wakefulness by increasing external stimulation. Evidence is accumulating to suggest that psychostimulants do not have a high risk of triggering or aggravating mania, but might even be a treatment option in acute mania. SUMMARY: ADHD and mania share many symptoms and several pathogenetic aspects. The common belief that stimulants are contraindicated in mania has been challenged, and controlled trials to study the possible antimanic effects of vigilance-stabilizing drugs such as stimulants are justified and necessary.