Impact of Teacher Value Orientations on Student Learning in Physical Education.

Based on the value orientation theory, the purpose of this study was to determine the impact of value orientation incongruence between physical education teachers and an externally designed curriculum on student learning in a concept-based fitness-centered physical education curriculum. Physical education teachers (n = 15) with different value orientations taught an externally designed, standards-based fitness/healthful living curriculum to their middle school students (n = 3,827) in 155 sixth, seventh, and eighth grade intact classes. A pre-post assessment design was used to determine whether student fitness/healthful living knowledge gains differed in terms of teachers' value orientations. An ANOVA on class means of residual-adjusted knowledge gain scores revealed no statistically significant differences based on value orientations. The evidence suggests that teacher value orientation impact may be mediated by curriculum impact. This finding supports the observation that a well-designed physical education curriculum may minimize the impact of teachers' diverse value orientations on the curriculum implementation and student learning.

Educating Students for a Lifetime of Physical Activity: Enhancing Mindfulness, Motivation, and Meaning.

For many years, pedagogical scholars and physical education (PE) teachers have worked to enhance effective teaching and learning environments. Yet for some children, youth, and young adults, many of the benefits associated with a physically active lifestyle remain elusive. Enhancing programming and performance to meet physical activity goals may require moving programs beyond "effective." It will require teachers and program leaders to focus programmatic attention on strategies to actually increase students' out-of-class physical activity behavior. Transformative PE provides physical activity content within a nurturing and motivating environment that can change students' lives. It focuses on PE students' role in cognitive decision making, self-motivation, and their search for personal meaning that can add connection and relevance to physical activities. In this SHAPE America - Society of Health and Physical Educators Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture, I have synthesized the research on these topics to emphasize useful findings applicable to teachers' everyday planning and teaching. Using sport, physical activity, dance, and adventure activities as the means to an end for personal and social growth, we can meet our commitment to effective standards-based education while preparing students for a lifetime of physical activity.

Knowledge, transfer, and innovation in physical literacy curricula.

Literate individuals possess knowledge and skill and can apply these to perform tasks in novel settings. Knowledge is at the heart of physical literacy and provides the foundation for knowing what to do and how and when to perform. In this paper I argue that physical literacy includes not only knowledge for performance but also the ability to apply knowledge and use knowledge for innovation. Scholars since the 1930s have addressed the role of knowledge in physical literacy designing curricula centered on transmitting knowledge through a range of interdisciplinary approaches to physical education. This emphasis on physical literacy curricula continues today in the Science, PE, & Me! and The Science of Healthful Living interdisciplinary curricula.

The role of students and content in teacher effectiveness.

The process of effective teaching--teaching that directly leads to student learning of standards-based content--is tenuous at best and easily disrupted by contextual and behavioral factors. In this commentary, I discuss the role of student support and mediation in teacher effectiveness and curricular reform. The most vocal students in physical education classes appear to thrive in the current multiactivity, recreation-oriented sport culture that dominates many U.S. physical education programs. They expect lessons with minimal skill and tactical instruction and with maximum opportunities to play ball. I also comment on Ward's emphasis on the value of content-rich definitions of teaching effectiveness and argue for additional disciplinary-based, concept-rich cognitive outcomes for physical education to complement and enrich skill, sport, and physical activity performance. I lend my voice to Rink's call for comprehensive measures of teacher accountability as the most critical next step in physical education reform. I conclude by contesting McKenzie and Lounsbery's accusation of "muddled goals" in physical education. Although physical education advocates may present diverse content perspectives, student learning is the primary goal of physical education.

What Goes Around Comes Around Or Does It? Disrupting the Cycle of Traditional, Sport-Based Physical Education.

As typically taught, sport-based, multiactivity approaches to physical education provide students with few opportunities to increase their skill, fitness, or understanding. Alternative curriculum models, such as Sport Education, Teaching Games for Understanding, and Fitness for Life, represent a second generation of models that build on strong statements of democratic, student-centered practice in physical education. In the What Goes Around section of the paper, I discuss the U.S. perspective on the origins of alternative physical education curriculum models introduced in the early and mid-20th century as a response to sport and exercise programs of the times. Today, with the help of physical educators, scholars are conducting research to test new curricular alternatives or prototypes to provide evidence-based support for these models. Yet, the multiactivity, sport-based curriculum continues to dominate in most U.S. physical education classes. I discuss reasons for this dogged persistence and propose reforms to disrupt this pervasive pattern in the future.

Reimagining professional competence in physical education / Reimaginando a competência profissional em educação física / Vuelva a imaginar competencia profesional en educación física

Physical educators have critical roles to play in assisting communities and schools to increase physical activity for all citizens. They can assist classroom teachers in increasing physical activity in the academic school day and can serve as school wellness directors to increase the amount of physical activity students and school staff members receive during the day. Additionally, physical educators can implement innovative approaches to physical education curricula to enhance students' opportunities to be active and to learn concepts to assist them to be physically active now and for a lifetime. When implementing evidence-based approaches to physical education, teachers need to teach the curriculum coherently and with fidelity. New programs such as Science, PE, & Me! and the Science of Healthful Living provide opportunities for students to examine the effects of exercise on their bodies in a physically active, learning-oriented approach to physical education.

Educadores físicos têm um papel fundamental a desempenhar na ajuda às comunidades e escolas para aumentar o engajamento em atividade física por todos os cidadãos. Eles podem auxiliar professores de sala de aula inserindo atividade física no seu conteúdo acadêmico escolar e direcionar as escolas ao bem-estar e aumentar a oferta diária de atividade física a estudantes e funcionários da escola. Além disso, educadores físicos podem desenvolver abordagens inovadoras nos currículos de educação física de modo a aumentar as oportunidades dos alunos se tornarem ativos e aprenderem conceitos sobre ser fisicamente ativos agora e para toda a vida. Ao desenvolver abordagens baseadas em evidências sobre a educação física, os professores precisam implantar o currículo de forma coerente e com fidelidade. Novos programas, como o Science, PE, & Me! E o Science of Healthful Living oferecem oportunidades para estudantes examinar os efeitos do exercício sobre seus corpos sob uma educação física ativa, e abordagem da aprendizagem orientada.

Educadores físicos tienen un papel clave que desempeñar para ayudar a las comunidades y las escuelas para aumentar la participación en la actividad física de todos los ciudadanos. Ellos pueden ayudar a los maestros en el aula mediante la inserción de la actividad física en su contenido académico escolar y las escuelas directas para el bienestar y aumentar la oferta de actividad física diaria para los estudiantes y el personal escolar. Además, los educadores físicos pueden desarrollar enfoques innovadores en los programas de educación física para aumentar las oportunidades para los estudiantes a participar activamente y aprender conceptos sobre la actividad física actual y para la vida. Desarrollar enfoques basados en la evidencia sobre la educación física, los profesores tienen que poner en práctica el plan de estudios coherente y fiel. Nuevos programas como Science, PE, & Me! y Science of Healthful Living, ofrecen oportunidades a los estudiantes para analizar los efectos del ejercicio en el cuerpo bajo una educación física activa, y el enfoque orientado al aprendizaje.

Implementing meaningful, educative curricula, and assessments in complex school environments.

This commentary uses the lens of curricular implementation to consider issues and opportunities afforded by the papers in this special edition. While it is interesting to envision innovative approaches to physical education, actually implementing changes in the complex institutional school environment is exceptionally challenging. These authors have done an excellent job presenting viable solutions and fore grounding challenges. Yet, without a concerted effort to invite teachers to engage with us in this process, our implementation initiatives may not enhance the meaningful and educative process that these scholars envision for physical education.

Reimagining professional competence in physical education.

Physical educators have critical roles to play in assisting communities and schools to increase physical activity for all citizens. They can assist classroom teachers in increasing physical activity in the academic school day and can serve as school wellness directors to increase the amount of physical activity students and school staff members receive during the day. Additionally, physical educators can implement innovative approaches to physical education curricula to enhance students' opportunities to be active and to learn concepts to assist them to be physically active now and for a lifetime. When implementing evidence-based approaches to physical education, teachers need to teach the curriculum coherently and with fidelity. New programs such as Science, PE, & Me! and the Science of Healthful Living provide opportunities for students to examine the effects of exercise on their bodies in a physically active, learning-oriented approach to physical education.

Learning Science-Based Fitness Knowledge in Constructivist Physical Education.

Teaching fitness-related knowledge has become critical in developing children's healthful living behavior. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a science-based, constructivist physical education curriculum on learning fitness knowledge critical to healthful living in elementary school students. The schools (N = 30) were randomly selected from one of the largest school districts in the United States and randomly assigned to treatment curriculum and control conditions. Students in third, fourth, and fifth grade (N = 5,717) were pre- and posttested on a standardized knowledge test on exercise principles and benefits in cardiorespiratory health, muscular capacity, and healthful nutrition and body flexibility. The results indicated that children in the treatment curriculum condition learned at a faster rate than their counterparts in the control condition. The results suggest that the constructivist curriculum is capable of inducing superior knowledge gain in third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade children.

Implementation Challenges for a Constructivist Physical Education Curriculum.

BACKGROUND: Curriculum fidelity describes the extent to which a curriculum is implemented faithfully as planned. Curriculum fidelity issues may arise when teachers implement the curriculum inconsistently due to differences in philosophy, barriers in the setting, or other local concerns. PURPOSE: The study examined challenges that a teacher faced in implementing a constructivist physical education curriculum that had fidelity implications. RESEARCH DESIGN: Ethnographic case study design was employed in the research. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: One physical education teacher, Daniel, and his students in third, fourth, and fifth grade participated in the study as they were involved in a curriculum intervention in a large urban school district in the U.S. Daniel's school was assigned randomly to experiment group to implement a physical education curriculum based on health/fitness related science. DATA COLLECTION: The researchers observed 75 lessons taught by Daniel using non-participant observation techniques and conducted two structured interviews with Daniel and eight interviews with his students. DATA ANALYSIS: Constant comparison with open and axial coding was used to analyze the observation and interview data. FINDINGS: Two thematic challenges emerged: (a) school contextual constraints that limited the fitness science learning environment in physical education, and (b) Daniel's personal value and preference for a recreational rather than a science-based physical education program. These challenges impacted Daniel's decisions when teaching the curriculum.

Content specificity of expectancy beliefs and task values in elementary physical education.

The curriculum may superimpose a content-specific context that mediates motivation (Bong, 2001). This study examined content specificity of the expectancy-value motivation in elementary school physical education. Students' expectancy beliefs and perceived task values from a cardiorespiratory fitness unit, a muscular fitness unit, and a traditional skill/game unit were analyzed using constant comparison coding procedures, multivariate analysis of variance, X2, and correlation analyses. There was no difference in the intrinsic interest value among the three content conditions. Expectancy belief attainment, and utility values were significantly higher for the cardiorespiratory fitness curriculum. Correlations differentiated among the expectancy-value components of the content conditions, providing further evidence of content specificity in the expectancy-value motivation process. The findings suggest that expectancy beliefs and task values should be incorporated in the theoretical platform for curriculum development based on the learning outcomes that can be specified with enhanced motivation effect.

Examining curricular coherence in an exemplary elementary school program.

A coherent curriculum is characterized by visible connections between purposes and experiences so that students acknowledge the content's immediate value. This study examined an exemplary elementary physical education curriculum for coherence components. Research questions examined the role of coherence in connecting and engaging students meaningfully in physical education. Observations and interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data in one program for 22 weeks. Data were analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding. Results described two units, Balls Skills, leading to modified basketball, and Scooter City, a theme-based unit emphasizing student choice and responsibility. Students reported that both units were enjoyable. Although the Balls Skills unit was well planned, taught, and managed, some students commented that the skill and games content was valuable only in basketball. In the Scooter City unit, students identified numerous connections to out-of-school activities that enhanced content value. Comparisons with Beane's coherence criteria suggested that students valued Scooter City based on concrete connections to their lived experiences.

Is in-class physical activity at risk in constructivist physical education?

Constructivist physical education emphasizes cognitive engagement. This study examined the impact of a constructivist curriculum on in-class physical activity. Caloric expenditure in metabolic equivalents (MET) and vector magnitude count (VM) data from a random sample of 41 constructivist lessons were compared with those from a random sample of 35 nonconstructivist lessons. Statistical analyses revealed that students in both curriculum conditions were active at a similarly low-moderate level (MET = 2.6 for experimental, 2.5 for comparison, p = .30). Differences (p < .05) were found between the three units within the constructivist curriculum. The findings suggest that the constructivist approach may facilitate knowledge learning with little risk of reducing in-class physical activity.

Pedagogic Strategies Perceived to Enhance Student Learning in Athletic Training Education.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate students' and instructors' educational experiences in Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP)-accredited athletic training education programs and specifically to determine to what extent pedagogic strategies were reflected in students' perceptions of their learning experiences, instructors' perceptions of their teaching, and athletic training course syllabi. DESIGN AND SETTING: Students and instructors currently enrolled in or teaching in 5 university athletic training programs accredited by CAAHEP provided in-depth interviews pertaining to students' educational experiences. Students' educational experiences in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training programs were also examined through current athletic training education course syllabi. SUBJECTS: Twenty-one students (9 males, 12 females) and 12 instructors (7 males, 5 females) were interviewed to examine their perceptions of teaching and learning experiences within their program. MEASUREMENTS: Students' and instructors' perceptions of their educational experiences in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training education programs were analyzed qualitatively using the data-analysis software program NUD*IST. Data from all 3 sources (students' interviews, instructors' interviews, course syllabi) were coded into categories within the NUD*IST program and then triangulated to ensure the authenticity of the findings. RESULTS: Based on the analysis of students' and instructors' interviews and course syllabi, 3 pedagogic strategies were identified that appeared to facilitate athletic training education in CAAHEP-accredited programs: use of scenarios and case studies, authentic experiences, and a positive educational environment. CONCLUSIONS: Students and instructors in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training education programs recognize and value specific pedagogic theories of teaching and learning and achievement motivation in students' educational experiences. Specific educational themes identified across athletic training instructors, students, and programs are outlined. All athletic training educators should take an interest in understanding what students and instructors in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training programs view as helpful pedagogic practices within their educational experiences.