Meltwater temperature in streams draining Alpine glaciers.

Climate change is significantly impacting lotic environments, through changes to hydrology, biodiversity and species distribution. Effects of climate change are greatest at high elevation and biota in and around glacier-fed rivers is likely, therefore, to be at great risk. How climate change influences hydrology will have great impact on river water temperature as glacier-fed rivers in Alpine environments are extremely sensitive to climatic change. This paper assesses five rivers: Four glacier-fed rivers (36.9-83.7% basin glacierisation) located in the Swiss Alps, and one located in an ice-free catchment in the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. The aim was to assess the impact of basin characteristics on river water temperature. A distinct paradoxical relationship was identified whereby water temperature in some glacier-fed rivers was reduced during the time of highest incoming shortwave radiation receipts and high air temperature. Whether a summer cooling effect presented itself in all glacier-fed rivers within this study was researched. The key findings were that the identified summer cooling effect was not present in all rivers, despite percentage glacierisation. Percentage glacier cover has often been reported as they key determiner of water temperature in such rivers. More important was the stream dimensions, notably stream surface area. Understanding the controlling factors that influence water temperature of glacier-fed rivers will help river managers and planners in understanding how climate change will affect fisheries downstream of glaciers over the coming decades. This may allow plans to be introduced to try and mitigate warmer water temperature that will result, in some glacier-fed rivers, as the climate warms.

An innovative strategy to promote oral health in schoolchildren.

It is believed that the single most important factor affecting the incidence of dental caries in children is the frequency of exposure of teeth to non-milk extrinsic sugars, particularly sucrose, in the diet. Restricting consumption of sugar-containing snacks and drinks to mealtimes makes a significant contribution to the reduction of dental caries in children and consequent improvement in oral health. Many schools offer children sugar-containing drinks and snacks at break-times although they may give children the option of healthy food choices at mealtimes. Attempts by dentists to persuade schools to change their break-time food and drink policies may be met with moderate success, especially with respect to drinks. Recently a sugar-free cup drink has been made available to schools in an attractive package and at an attractive price. An innovative campaign to promote sugar-free cup drinks in schools is described. By this campaign a reduction of dental caries' experience in schoolchildren may be achieved. Proposals are made for sugar-free cup drinks to be recognised as a safe confectionery and to be endorsed with the 'Tooth-friendly Sweets' logo.

Influences on the quality of student learning--implications for medical education.

This paper reviews recent research into the ways in which departments influence the quality of student learning. A substantial literature has developed which describes differences in the ways in which students learn and study in higher education. These differences emphasise the distinction between seeking personal understanding and reproducing information or procedures. The research indicates that certain departments, and some lecturers, are much better than others in encouraging students to look for deep levels of meaning. The quality of teaching and the methods of assessment are particularly influential, but so is the extent to which students are helped to develop effective studying and learning strategies. Some students have been shown to have major problems in the way they perceive and utilise the opportunities for learning provided by departments. While much of the research is not drawn directly from medical faculties, the relevance to medical education is pointed up and supported by specific examples of relevant research.

Findings and implications from research on student learning.

This paper sets out a number of important conclusions drawn from research on student learning in higher education. Although there is an emphasis on medical education, most of the research conclusions presented are relevant to undergraduate education in general. The conclusions and accompanying questions are intended to promote debate among academic practitioners and students on how to improve the quality of student learning. In conjunction with the complementary research review by Entwistle on how departments may influence the quality of student learning, the conclusions and questions presented here formed the basis of a workshop presented at the 1991 Conference of the South African Association for Medical Education held at the University of Cape Town.

Pupils' perceptions of school and teachers. I--Identifying the underlying dimensions.

Previous comparative studies have shown interesting differences in motivation and approaches to learning between Britain and Hungary, which were considered to reflect different methods of teaching. The present study reports the development of scales designed to measure pupils' perceptions of school and teachers with the intention of relating those perceptions to school motivation and approaches to learning. The scales covered a wide range of aspects relating both to pupils' perceptions of school ethos and aspects of the learning environment. An inventory made up of 18 five-item Likert scales describing perceptions of school and teacher was given to samples of 516 12-15 year-old pupils in five British schools and a comparable sample of 602 pupils in Hungary. The factor structure of the school and teacher perceptions scales was almost identical in the two countries, suggesting that pupils perceive their schools in very similar ways in spite of the contrasting educational and social systems. There were differences between schools which, although small at the scale level, were sometimes large at the level of individual items. It is suggested that a revised set of scales which have been derived from these analyses might be used by schools to judge the way they are perceived by their pupils, and so also by the parents who will be having more influence in future on school policy and management.

Pupils' perceptions of school and teachers. II--Relationships with motivation and approaches to learning.

The previous article has described the development of scales designed to measure pupils' perceptions of school and teachers. Previous comparative studies have shown interesting differences in motivation and approaches to learning between Britain and Hungary, which were considered to reflect different methods of teaching. This article explores the relationships between a set of inventory scores describing perceptions of school and teachers and another set indicating school motivation and approaches to learning. The complete inventory was given to samples of 516 12-15 year-old pupils in five British schools and a comparable sample of 602 pupils in Hungary. The factor structure of the combined inventory was investigated, together with correlational analyses at scale and item level which suggested that relationships did exist between perceptions of school and teachers, levels of school motivation, and approaches to learning.

Towards the identification of student learning problems: the development of a diagnostic inventory.

An understanding of how students approach their learning has important implications for medical education. Of particular interest is the fact that the approach students use in their study has a significant impact on both the quality of the learning and their academic success. It would clearly be of value to identify students whose approach to learning was predictive of unsatisfactory performance. This paper describes the initial development of two versions of an inventory (questionnaire) which was designed to aid in the diagnosis of student learning problems. Preliminary information is given on the reliability and validity of these instruments. Factor analyses support the underlying design. Correlation of subscales with academic performance has provided encouraging evidence of the potential of these inventories in identifying students with specific learning or study problems.

Learning styles and approaches: implications for medical education.

This paper reviews the recent literature on learning styles and approaches to learning. It identifies two separate streams of research, one originating from mainstream cognitive and psychometric psychology and one from research undertaken within the everyday learning environment. The latter is dealt with in greater detail as it seems to have more immediate practical relevance. A simple model of the teaching-learning process is presented showing how students learn in different ways which are partly attributable to their preferred learning style and partly to the context in which the learning takes place. Three basic approaches have been identified: surface, deep and strategic, each resulting in a different learning outcome. The most desirable and successful is the deep approach. The way in which the teaching and the policies of the department and school influence the students' approach to learning are reviewed in some detail. A consideration of these characteristics in medical schools suggested that many may hinder rather than assist in the development of the desired approach. The work reviewed here suggests that the remedy will require not only substantial changes in the teaching, curriculum and, particularly, assessment, but also a new strategy based on identifying and assisting individual students whose approaches to study are not those expected of a competent university-educated doctor.