Glass Slippers and Glass Cliffs: Fitting In and Falling Off.

BACKGROUND: A glass ceiling effect exists for women in male-dominated professions. Recent studies also show a glass-cliff effect where senior women can more easily fall from positions of leadership. Transplantation remains a male-dominated specialty. This study investigated gender and the perception of adverse clinical incidents in transplantation. METHODS: Prospective randomised web-based survey involving five clinical scenarios presenting two versions of episodes with errors or mistakes, with either a male or female as a randomly named protagonist (Set1 and Set2). To address unconscious bias, the study was described as examining actions following clinical adverse incidents in transplantation. Each scenario was followed by 2 closed questions: (1) clinical performance rating and (2) selection of action required. Reasoning was invited (open-text comments). Responses were analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-one invitees responded; 134 completed questionnaires. There were no statistically significant differences (P > 0.05) in responses between sets for performance ratings or recommended actions. However, for "first solo laparoscopic surgery" scenario, there was some indication that "No Action" was more likely if surgeon was male (P = 0.056). Male responses rated female performance as significantly worse (P = 0.035) for the laboratory-based scenario. One hundred two participants provided open-text comments. Thematic analysis identified 7 themes. Acceptable levels of risk theme demonstrated engendered leadership beliefs, that is, when clinical judgment proved incorrect, males described as forceful but females as needing support. In cases where things went wrong, respondents were more likely to comment females should not have decided to proceed. CONCLUSIONS: While gender may no longer be an overt issue in perceived performance of senior staff in transplantation, respondents' use of language and their choice of words display elements of unconscious (covert) engendered views.

Administration of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in patients undergoing haemodialysis: A time and motion study.

BACKGROUND: International guidelines recommend treatment of anaemia due to chronic kidney disease (CKD) with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs). OBJECTIVE: To document the time required and the cost in terms of nursing time to prepare and administer ESAs to patients on facility based haemodialysis (HD) with anaemia due to CKD before and after the introduction of long-acting ESAs. DESIGN: A time and motion study was implemented at four HD units in Australia to determine the time and costs associated with preparing and administering ESAs before and after the introduction of long-acting ESAs. PARTICIPANTS: This was a prospective, observational study of workplace practices at four HD units in Australia. MEASUREMENTS: Outcome data included the time taken to prepare, and administer ESAs. RESULTS: The time costs of preparation and administration per patient per year had a wide variability within each unit and ranged from Australian AUD$55.75 (38 euros) to AUD$90.49 (62 euros) before the introduction of long-acting ESAs. This dropped by 73-80% following the introduction of long-acting ESAs, representing an annual cost savings of between AUD$2,591 and AUD$5,914 if all patients on HD were switched to a long acting ESA. CONCLUSION: Switching from a short-acting to a long-acting ESA in HD units leads to a significant reduction in time costs of health professionals in preparation and administration of ESAs by up to 80%. Practical application: This time and motion study has added further evidence on reduction of human effort by taking advantages of new research development, such as the long acting ESAs.

A Trial of Extending Hemodialysis Hours and Quality of Life.

The relationship between increased hemodialysis hours and patient outcomes remains unclear. We randomized (1:1) 200 adult recipients of standard maintenance hemodialysis from in-center and home-based hemodialysis programs to extended weekly (≥24 hours) or standard (target 12-15 hours, maximum 18 hours) hemodialysis hours for 12 months. The primary outcome was change in quality of life from baseline assessed by the EuroQol 5 dimension instrument (3 level) (EQ-5D). Secondary outcomes included medication usage, clinical laboratory values, vascular access events, and change in left ventricular mass index. At 12 months, median weekly hemodialysis hours were 24.0 (interquartile range, 23.6-24.0) and 12.0 (interquartile range, 12.0-16.0) in the extended and standard groups, respectively. Change in EQ-5D score at study end did not differ between groups (mean difference, 0.04 [95% confidence interval, -0.03 to 0.11]; P=0.29). Extended hours were associated with lower phosphate and potassium levels and higher hemoglobin levels. Blood pressure (BP) did not differ between groups at study end. Extended hours were associated with fewer BP-lowering agents and phosphate-binding medications, but were not associated with erythropoietin dosing. In a substudy with 95 patients, we detected no difference between groups in left ventricular mass index (mean difference, -6.0 [95% confidence interval, -14.8 to 2.7] g/m2; P=0.18). Five deaths occurred in the extended group and two in the standard group (P=0.44); two participants in each group withdrew consent. Similar numbers of patients experienced vascular access events in the two groups. Thus, extending weekly hemodialysis hours did not alter overall EQ-5D quality of life score, but was associated with improvement in some laboratory parameters and reductions in medication burden. (Clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT00649298).

Comparison of intermittent and continuous extracorporeal treatments for the enhanced elimination of dabigatran.

CONTEXT: Severe bleeding associated with dabigatran frequently requires intensive care management. An antidote is currently unavailable and data reporting the effect of dialysis on elimination of dabigatran are encouraging, but limited. Objective. To report the effect of intermittent hemodialysis (IHD) and continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) at enhancing elimination of dabigatran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients were identified by existing collaborative networks. Pre-filter dabigatran plasma concentrations were measured in all patients, and in dialysate of three patients. RESULTS: Seven patients received dialysis, five with active bleeding and two requiring emergent surgery. Five received IHD and two received CRRT. The plasma elimination half-life of dabigatran was 1.5-4.9 h during IHD, and 14.0-27.5 h during CRRT. Mean dabigatran plasma clearance during IHD was 85-169 mL/min in three patients. Time to obtain a subtherapeutic dabigatran concentration depended on the initial concentration, being 8-18 h for IHD in three patients while 4 h was insufficient in a supratherapeutic case. A 38% rebound in dabigatran levels occurred after one case during IHD, and thrombin time increased after IHD in another, but not after 144 h CRRT or 17 h IHD in two others; data were incomplete in three cases. The amount removed during IHD was proportional to the pre-IHD concentration and clearance, but was consistently low at 3.3-17.4 mg in three patients where this was determined. Moderate bleeding occurred while obtaining vascular access in one patient. Two patients died from intracerebral bleeding, and the influence of treatments could not be determined in these cases. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: IHD enhanced elimination of dabigatran more efficiently than CRRT, but their net effect remains poorly defined. Dialysis decisions, including modality and duration, must be individualized based on a risk-benefit assessment.

A role for everolimus in post-transplant encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis: first case report.

Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis (EPS) is a rare complication of peritoneal dialysis (PD) that carries a high morbidity and mortality. The 'two hit theory' suggests that long term deterioration of the peritoneum combined with intraperitoneal inflammation is needed in the pathogenesis of EPS. For unclear reasons, post transplantation EPS is being increasingly reported in patients previously on PD. To date, there is no proven effective therapy with an absence of randomised controlled trials. Individual case reports and small case series have reported on the use of tamoxifen and corticosteroids for medical management of EPS. The use of everolimus has been reported in a single case, and never in the setting of renal transplantation. Here, we present the first case of post-transplant encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis treated successfully with a combination of everolimus, tamoxifen, low dose corticosteroid and surgery.

A randomized, controlled trial of everolimus-based dual immunosuppression versus standard of care in de novo kidney transplant recipients.

Kidney transplant recipients receiving calcineurin inhibitor-based immunosuppression incur increased long-term risks of cancer and kidney fibrosis. Switch to mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors may reduce these risks. Steroid or Cyclosporin Removal After Transplant using Everolimus (SOCRATES), a 36-month, prospective, multinational, open-label, randomized controlled trial for de novo kidney transplant recipients, assessed whether everolimus switch could enable elimination of mycophenolate plus either steroids or CNI without compromising efficacy. Patients received cyclosporin, mycophenolate and steroids for the first 14 days then everolimus with mycophenolate and CNIwithdrawal (CNI-WD); everolimus with mycophenolate and steroid withdrawal (steroid-WD); or cyclosporin, mycophenolate and steroids (control). 126 patients were randomized. The steroid WD arm was terminated prematurely because of excess discontinuations. Mean eGFR at month 12 for CNI-WD versus control was 65.1 ml/min/1.73 m2 vs. 67.1 ml/min/1.73 m2 by ITT, which met predefined noninferiority criteria (P=0.026). The CNI-WD group experienced a higher rate of BPAR(31% vs. control 13%, P=0.048) and showed a trend towards higher composite treatment failure (BPAR, graft loss, death, loss to follow-up). The 12 month results from SOCRATES show noninferiority in eGFR, but a significant excess of acute rejection when everolimus was commenced at week 2 to enable a progressive withdrawal of mycophenolate and cyclosporin in kidney transplant recipients.

Enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium in combination with full dose or reduced dose cyclosporine, basiliximab and corticosteroids in Australian de novo kidney transplant patients.

AIM: Cyclosporine (CsA), dosed to achieve C2 targets, has been shown to provide safe and efficacious immunosuppression when used with a mycophenolate and steroids for de novo kidney transplant recipients. This study examined whether use of enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium (EC-MPS) together with basiliximab and steroids would enable use of CsA dosed to reduced C2 targets in order to achieve improved graft function. METHODS: Twelve-month, prospective, randomized, open-label trial in de novo kidney transplant recipients in Australia. Seventy-five patients were randomized to receive either usual exposure (n = 33) or reduced exposure (n = 42) CsA, EC-MPS 720 mg twice daily, basiliximab and corticosteroids. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in mean Cockcroft-Gault CrCl (creatinine clearance) (60.2 ± 17.6 mL/min per 1.73 m(2) vs 63.2 ± 24.3, P = 0.64 for usual versus reduced exposure respectively) at 6 months. There was no significant difference between treatment groups in the incidence of treatment failure defined as biopsy proven acute rejection, graft loss or death (secondary endpoint: 30.3% full exposure vs 35.7% reduced exposure). At 12 months the incidence of overall adverse events was the same in both groups. CONCLUSION: This exploratory study suggests de novo renal transplant patients can safely receive a treatment regimen of either full or reduced exposure CsA in combination with EC-MPS, corticosteroids and basiliximab, with no apparent difference in efficacy or graft function during the first year after transplant.

Sirolimus reduces vasculopathy but exacerbates proteinuria in association with inhibition of VEGF and VEGFR in a rat kidney model of chronic allograft dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Use of the mTOR inhibitor (mTORi) sirolimus to replace calcineurin inhibitors in kidney transplantation has been associated with improved renal function but, in a proportion of cases, also with de novo or exacerbated proteinuria. Experimental deficiency of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induces proteinuria and mTOR is required for VEGF production and signalling. We therefore explored the impact of sirolimus on the development of chronic allograft dysfunction (CAD) in the rat, with a focus on VEGF biology. METHODS: Lewis rats received F344 kidney allografts and were treated with 24 weeks of cyclosporine or sirolimus. Controls included allografts treated with cyclosporine for 10 days only and isografts treated with cyclosporine or sirolimus for 24 weeks. Kidney injury (proteinuria and histology) and expression of VEGF and VEGF-receptor (VEGFR; immunohistochemistry, laser capture micro-dissection and quantitative RT-PCR) were assessed. RESULTS: Allograft controls developed proteinuria, tubulointerstitial fibrosis and atrophy, glomerulosclerosis, vasculopathy and leucocyte accumulation. Proteinuria was significantly reduced in both treatment groups but significantly more in cyclosporine treated animals. Tubulointerstitial damage, glomerulosclerosis and leucocyte accumulation were significantly attenuated in both treatment groups; however, vasculopathy was reduced only by sirolimus. Significantly diminished expression of VEGF and VEGFR mRNA and protein was evident in the sirolimus group. In vitro, sirolimus reduced VEGF production by podocytes (P < 0.05) and inhibited VEGF-induced proliferation of podocytes, endothelial and mesangial cells. CONCLUSIONS: Cyclosporine and sirolimus retard development of CAD in this rat model. Sirolimus exhibits greater protection against vasculopathy but induces proteinuria; effects are likely to be related to inhibition of VEGF signalling.

Stimulation of mesangial cells by angiotensin II and lipopolysaccharide increases expression of interleukin-18, but not IL-18 receptor.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Mesangial cell (MC) hyperplasia is associated with several kidney diseases. Experimental studies confirm upregulation of IL-18 in glomerular disease and renal allograft rejection. We evaluated whether MCs express IL-18 and IL-18 receptor-α (IL-18Rα) with and without stimulation by LPS, AngII and PDGF. METHODS: Glomeruli were isolated using Dynabeads perfusion. MCs were cultured by glomerular explantation. IL-18 and IL-18Rα expression were detected by RT-PCR, ELISA and flow cytometry. RESULTS: Significantly higher levels of IL-18 expression were detected in isolated glomeruli, compared to cortical tissue devoid of glomeruli, and in MCs, compared to tubular cells (both p < 0.01). Increased IL-18 expression was detected in MCs, but not podocytes, endothelial cells or tubular cells in response to LPS stimulation. IL-18 mRNA and protein expression were significantly upregulated by AngII (p < 0.05) and LPS (p < 0.01), but not PDGF-BB, in primary MCs and a MC line (MES13). IL-18Rα mRNA was almost undetectable in MCs treated with or without LPS, AngII and PDGF-BB. IL-18Rα protein was not detected by flow cytometry. CONCLUSIONS: MCs express IL-18, which was significantly increased after LPS and AngII stimulation, but do not express appreciable levels of IL-18Rα. MC-derived IL-18 is unlikely to be an autocrine mediator in glomerular disease given the lack of IL-18Rα.

Long-term cancer risk of immunosuppressive regimens after kidney transplantation.

Cancer is a widely recognized complication of transplantation, and the effects of various immunosuppressive drugs on cancer risk remains controversial. This randomized trial allocated 489 recipients of first cadaveric renal transplants to one of three groups: Azathioprine and prednisolone, cyclosporine monotherapy, or cyclosporine monotherapy followed by a switch to azathioprine and prednisolone after 3 months. Here, we report cancer outcomes by non-skin cancer (including melanoma) and skin cancer (excluding melanoma) for 481 patients during a median follow-up of 20.6 years. A total of 226 patients developed at least one cancer: 95 with non-skin cancer and 171 with skin cancer. In the intention-to-treat analysis, mean times to first non-skin cancer (16.0, 15.3, and 15.7 years for groups 1 through 3, respectively) and first skin cancer (13.6, 14.3, and 15.2 years, respectively) were not different among the three groups or between any subgroup. In multivariate analyses, non-skin cancer associated with increasing age and previous smoking history, whereas skin cancer associated with increasing age, nonbrown eye color, fairer skin, and a functioning transplant. Treatment allocation did not associate with development of either form of cancer in multivariate analyses. In conclusion, these immunosuppressive regimens, widely used in recent decades, carry similar risks for carcinogenicity after kidney transplantation.

Outcome of parathyroidectomy for patients with renal disease and hyperparathyroidism: predictors for recurrent hyperparathyroidism.

BACKGROUND: A small group of patients with renal disease-related secondary or tertiary hyperparathyroidism require surgical parathyroidectomy. Among them, 5-20% require further re-exploration and excision of parathyroid tissue because of recurrent disease. The aims of the present study were to review the characteristics and outcomes of patients undergoing parathyroidectomy for renal disease related hyperparathyroidism and to identify the risk factors for recurrent hyperparathyroidism. METHODS: Review of data from a dedicated head and neck database at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital between 1988 and 2004. RESULTS: There were 115 patients of whom 68 (59%) patients were treated with subtotal parathyroidectomy (STP), 43 (37%) were treated with total parathyroidectomy (TP) and 4 (3%) were treated with TP with autotransplant. Of those, 11 (9.6%) patients developed recurrent hyperparathyroidism (9 had STP, 1 had TP and 1 had TP with autotransplant). On re-exploration, persistent hyperplastic parathyroid tissue was located at the site of partially excised parathyroid gland (64%), autotransplanted parathyroid tissue (9%), anterior mediastinum (18%) and intrathyroidal parathyroid (9%). Predictors for recurrent hyperparathyroidism are STP (P= 0.049), preoperative symptom of calciphylaxis or calcinosis (P= 0.024), elevated preoperative calcium level (P= 0.007) and elevated post-operative PTH levels (P= 0.014). Post-operative PTH levels less than 10 pmol/L has a positive predictive value of 97.5% for cure (P= 0.02). CONCLUSION: More aggressive surgical approach could be indicated in patients with preoperative hypercalcaemia and calcinosis/calciphylaxis. Post-operative PTH can be utilized as a marker for cure after parathyroidectomy in hyperparathyroidism of renal disease.

Cyclosporine withdrawal improves long-term graft survival in renal transplantation.

BACKGROUND: The reduction in renal transplant rejection rates achieved over the last 20 years have not translated into a commensurate improvement in long-term graft survival. Cyclosporine has been central to immunosuppressive regimens throughout this period but its effect on long-term transplant outcomes remains unclear. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial allocated first cadaveric renal transplant recipients in seven centers around Australia to three immunosuppressive regimens: azathioprine and prednisolone (AP), long-term cyclosporine alone (Cy), or cyclosporine initiation followed by withdrawal at 3 months and azathioprine and prednisolone replacement (WDL). RESULTS: Between 1983 and 1986, 489 patients were randomized with 98% follow-up to a median of 20.6 years. Mean graft survival (censoring deaths) was superior in the WDL group (14.8 years) when compared with both AP (12.4 years, P=0.01 log-rank test) and Cy (12.5 years, P=0.01 log-rank test) groups by intention-to-treat. Without death censoring, graft survival with WDL was superior to AP (9.5 years vs. 6.7 years, P=0.04) and of borderline superiority to Cy (9.5 years vs. 8.5 years, P=0.06). Patient survival was not different between the three groups. Renal function was superior in AP (at 1, 10, and 15 years posttransplant) and WDL (at 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 years) groups when compared with Cy. CONCLUSION: This study illustrates superior long-term renal transplant survival and preservation of renal function with a protocol using cyclosporine withdrawal. If long-term renal transplant outcomes are to improve, we should reconsider guidelines recommending universal maintenance use of cyclosporine.

Photopheresis therapy for problematic renal allograft rejection.

BACKGROUND: Photopheresis is an immunomodulatory therapy for the treatment of T cell-mediated disorders. It has been used for rejection prophylaxis in cardiac transplantation, adjuvant treatment of bronchiolitis obliterans in lung transplantation, treatment of graft verse host disease, and in a small number of cases, for treatment of acute rejection in renal transplantation. Little is known of long-term outcomes following the use of photopheresis in solid organ transplantation. METHODS: We report prospective follow-up of our consecutive experience of the use of photopheresis as adjuvant/salvage therapy for problematic rejection in patients undergoing renal transplantation. Transplant graft survival, infective and malignant outcomes were reported. RESULTS: A cohort of 10 renal transplants recipients received photopheresis therapy for therapy-resistant rejection. Conventional therapy included an average of 6.2 g pulse methyl-prednisolone and 17.1 days antilymphocyte therapy. The cohort received additional photopheresis therapy when the unresponsive nature of their rejections raised concerns of graft loss. Median follow-up censored for patient loss was 66.7 months following photopheresis commencement. Rejection resolved in association with photopheresis use in all 10 patients. Six patients continued to have stable graft function (median serum creatinine: 191.5 micromol/L) at a median follow-up of 71.0 months. There has been one patient death from sepsis and two from malignancy with functioning grafts while one graft has been lost to disease recurrence. CONCLUSION: Photopheresis may have a role as an adjuvant or salvage antirejection therapy in solid organ transplantation. Furthermore, evaluation in randomized controlled clinical trials is required to evaluate its potential.

Dentritic cell derived IL-18 production is inhibited by rapamycin and sanglifehrin A, but not cyclosporine A.

Interleukin-18 (IL-18), a product of dendritic cells (DC), is a pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in the pathogenesis of allograft rejection, vascular disease, arthritis and diabetes. Rapamycin (Rapa) is an immunosuppressant that inhibits T cell mTOR kinase activation. In contrast, Sanglifehrin A (SFA), is a cyclophilin-binding immunosuppressant that does not act on calcineurin phosphatases but appears to inhibit IL-2-dependent T cell proliferation. Rapa and SFA exert some immunosuppressive effects on DC by inhibiting IL-12 production, although their effects on DC have not been investigated as comprehensively as those on T cells. We aimed to determine the impact of these drugs on DC IL-18 synthesis in vivo and in vitro. We found in vivo that LPS-stimulated OX62(+) DC produced significantly more IL-18 mRNA, compared to OX62(+) DC depleted splenocytes (p<0.01) and non-LPS-stimulated OX62(+) DC (p<0.01). OX62(+)CD4(+) and OX62(+)CD4(-) cells produced similar amounts of IL-18 mRNA. Rapa and SFA, but not CsA, significantly inhibited IL-18 production from OX62(+) DC in vitro, in a dose-dependent manner (p<0.05). In vivo IL-18 production was also inhibited by Rapa and SFA in splenic OX62(+) DC (p<0.01). Finally, inhibition of IL-18 production by Rapa and SFA was independent of the FK506 or cyclophilin pathways, respectively. In conclusion, Rapa and SFA, but not CsA, block IL-18 production and this novel Rapa blockade effect on IL-18 may contribute to the ability of Rapa to inhibit chronic allograft nephropathy and restenosis.

TLR4 activation mediates kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) may activate innate immunity through the engagement of TLRs by endogenous ligands. TLR4 expressed within the kidney is a potential mediator of innate activation and inflammation. Using a mouse model of kidney IRI, we demonstrated a significant increase in TLR4 expression by tubular epithelial cells (TECs) and infiltrating leukocytes within the kidney following ischemia. TLR4 signaling through the MyD88-dependent pathway was required for the full development of kidney IRI, as both TLR4(-/-) and MyD88(-/-) mice were protected against kidney dysfunction, tubular damage, neutrophil and macrophage accumulation, and expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In vitro, WT kidney TECs produced proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines and underwent apoptosis after ischemia. These effects were attenuated in TLR4(-/-) and MyD88(-/-) TECs. In addition, we demonstrated upregulation of the endogenous ligands high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), hyaluronan, and biglycan, providing circumstantial evidence that one or more of these ligands may be the source of TLR4 activation. To determine the relative contribution of TLR4 expression by parenchymal cells or leukocytes to kidney damage during IRI, we generated chimeric mice. TLR4(-/-) mice engrafted with WT hematopoietic cells had significantly lower serum creatinine and less tubular damage than WT mice reconstituted with TLR4(-/-) BM, suggesting that TLR4 signaling in intrinsic kidney cells plays the dominant role in mediating kidney damage.

Decision-making about suitability for kidney transplantation: Results of a national survey of Australian nephrologists.

AIM: This study aimed to elucidate the factors affecting nephrologists' decision-making on patients' suitability for kidney transplantation. Given the reduced access to transplantation for Indigenous Australians, the role of patient's ethnicity was of particular interest. METHODS: A postal survey of practising nephrologists and trainees was undertaken in Australia. Each participant was provided with a unique set of 15 hypothetical patient descriptions, with demographic, clinical and behavioural factors randomly generated to ensure an overall balance of factors across the cases. The main outcome measure was whether kidney transplantation was recommended. RESULTS: Responding nephrologists and trainees were more likely to recommend transplantation for hypothetical patients who were young, of normal weight and described as compliant. They were less likely to recommend transplantation for smokers, or for people with diabetes or heart disease. No significant differences related to the patients' sex or ethnicity. The geographical location of the respondent was a significant determinant, with differences according to their State/Territory and their metropolitan/non-metropolitan location. CONCLUSION: When all other factors were held constant, nephrologists and trainees appear to base their decision-making regarding suitability for transplant on clinical and behavioural factors, rather than on the basis of ethnicity or sex. In practice, however, clinical and behavioural factors cluster with ethnicity, and this is likely to contribute to the current poor access to transplantation for Indigenous end-stage kidney disease patients. Apparent differences in decision-making according to the respondent's location may reflect variations in practice across the country.

Anemia after kidney transplantation is not completely explained by reduced kidney function.

BACKGROUND: Anemia is prevalent among kidney transplant recipients and likely contributes to mortality and morbidity. Prevalence of anemia is associated strongly with degree of kidney graft dysfunction; however, it remains unclear whether additional transplant-associated factors also contribute. METHODS: The aim of this study is to compare the prevalence of anemia between 2 cohorts, 1 of kidney transplant recipients (n = 851) and another from the general population (n = 732), sourced from subjects of the AusDiab study and selected by means of propensity score to provide a cohort matched for kidney function (Cockcroft-Gault creatinine clearance). RESULTS: Average hemoglobin level in kidney transplant recipients was (13.1 g/dL [131 g/L]; range, 9.0 to 18.0 g/dL), significantly less than in the general population (14.3 g/dL [143 g/L]; range, 9.7 to 20.0 g/dL). The prevalence of anemia (hemoglobin < 12.0 g/dL [<120 g/L] for females; <12.5 g/dL [<125 g/L] for males) was almost 10-fold greater in kidney transplant recipients (30.8%) versus the general population (3.4%). Average hemoglobin level was lower in the kidney-transplant-recipient cohort at all levels of creatinine clearance. Considering both cohorts pooled, multivariate analysis showed that transplant status had the strongest association with anemia, followed by sex, creatinine clearance, and age. CONCLUSION: Posttransplantation anemia cannot be attributed solely to impaired kidney function.