A bicyclic peptide scaffold promotes phosphotyrosine mimicry and cellular uptake.

While peptides are promising as probes and therapeutics, targeting intracellular proteins will require greater understanding of highly structured, cell-internalized scaffolds. We recently reported BC1, an 11-residue bicyclic peptide that inhibits the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain of growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2). In this work, we describe the unique structural and cell uptake properties of BC1 and similar cyclic and bicyclic scaffolds. These constrained scaffolds are taken up by mammalian cells despite their net neutral or negative charges, while unconstrained analogs are not. The mechanism of uptake is shown to be energy-dependent and endocytic, but distinct from that of Tat. The solution structure of BC1 was investigated by NMR and MD simulations, which revealed discrete water-binding sites on BC1 that reduce exposure of backbone amides to bulk water. This represents an original and potentially general strategy for promoting cell uptake.

Solution structure of a designed cyclic peptide ligand for nickel and copper ions.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to study a cyclic peptide derived from the amino-terminal copper-and-nickel-binding (ATCUN) motif. The three-dimensional structure of the unliganded peptide in aqueous solution was solved by simulated annealing using distance constraints derived from Nuclear Overhauser Effects. A structural model for the Ni(II)-bound complex was also produced based on NMR evidence and prior spectroscopic data, which are consistent with crystal structures of linear ATCUN complexes. Structural interpolation, or "morphing," was used to understand the transition of this highly structured cyclic peptide from its unliganded structure to its metal-ion-bound structure.

Comprehensive analysis of loops at protein-protein interfaces for macrocycle design.

Inhibiting protein-protein interactions (PPIs) with synthetic molecules remains a frontier of chemical biology. Many PPIs have been successfully targeted by mimicking α-helices at interfaces, but most PPIs are mediated by nonhelical, nonstrand peptide loops. We sought to comprehensively identify and analyze these loop-mediated PPIs by writing and implementing LoopFinder, a customizable program that can identify loop-mediated PPIs within all of the protein-protein complexes in the Protein Data Bank. Comprehensive analysis of the entire set of 25,005 interface loops revealed common structural motifs and unique features that distinguish loop-mediated PPIs from other PPIs. 'Hot loops', named in analogy to protein hot spots, were identified as loops with favorable properties for mimicry using synthetic molecules. The hot loops and their binding partners represent new and promising PPIs for the development of macrocycle and constrained peptide inhibitors.