Development of novel tools for dissection of central versus peripheral dopamine D2-like receptor signaling in dysglycemia.

Dopamine (DA) D2-like receptors in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the periphery are key modulators of metabolism. Moreover, disruption of D2-like receptor signaling is implicated in dysglycemia. Yet, the respective metabolic contributions of CNS versus peripheral D2-like receptors including D2 (D2R) and D3 (D3R) receptors remain poorly understood. To address this, we developed new pharmacological tools, D2-like receptor agonists with diminished and delayed blood-brain barrier capability, to selectively manipulate D2R/D3R signaling in the periphery. We designated bromocriptine methiodide (BrMeI), a quaternary methiodide analogue of D2R/D3R agonist and diabetes drug bromocriptine, as our lead compound based on preservation of D2R/D3R binding and functional efficacy. We then used BrMeI and unmodified bromocriptine to dissect relative contributions of CNS versus peripheral D2R/D3R signaling in treating dysglycemia. Systemic administration of bromocriptine, with unrestricted access to CNS and peripheral targets, significantly improved both insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in obese, dysglycemic mice in vivo. In contrast, metabolic improvements were attenuated when access to bromocriptine was restricted either to the CNS through intracerebroventricular administration or delayed access to the CNS via BrMeI. Our findings demonstrate that the coordinated actions of both CNS and peripheral D2-like receptors are required for correcting dysglycemia. Ultimately, the development of a first-generation of drugs designed to selectively target the periphery provides a blueprint for dissecting mechanisms of central versus peripheral DA signaling and paves the way for novel strategies to treat dysglycemia.

Pharmacologic Characterization of Substituted Nitazenes at µ, κ, and Δ Opioid Receptors Suggests High Potential for Toxicity.

The benzimidazole opioids (substituted nitazenes) are highly potent µ opiod receptor (MOR) agonists with heroin- or fentanyl-like effects. These compounds have caused hospitalizations and fatal overdoses. We characterized the in vitro pharmacology and structure-activity relationships of 19 nitazenes with substitutions at three positions of the benzimidazole core. Affinities were assessed using agonist radioligand binding assays at human µ, κ, and Δ opioid receptors (MOR, KOR, and DOR, respectively) heterologously expressed in CHO cells. Notably, for MOR binding, nine substituted nitazenes had significantly higher affinities than fentanyl including N-pyrrolidino etonitazene, N-pyrrilidino isonitazene, and N-desethyl isotonitazene; 13 had subnanomolar affinities. Only metodesnitazene and flunitazene had significantly lower affinities than fentanyl. Affinities for the substituted nitazenes at KOR and DOR relative to MOR were 46- to 2580-fold and 180- to 1280-fold lower, respectively. Functional activities were assessed using [35S]GTPγS binding assays. Four nitazenes had subnanomolar potencies at MOR: N-pyrrolidino etonitazene, N-pyrrilidino isonitazene, N-pyrrilidino protonitazene and N-desethyl isotonitazene. Ten substituted nitazenes had significantly higher potencies than fentanyl. All tested nitazenes were full MOR agonists. Potencies at KOR and DOR relative to MOR were 7.3- to 7920-fold and 24- to 9400-fold lower, respectively. Thus, many of these compounds are high affinity/high potency MOR agonists with elevated potential to elicit toxicity and overdose at low doses. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Substituted nitazenes are a growing public health threat. Although the 19 nitazenes tested vary in their opioid receptor pharmacology, a number are very high affinity, high potency, and high efficacy compounds- higher than fentanyl. Their pharmacology suggests high potential for harm.

Development of novel tools for dissection of central versus peripheral dopamine D2-like receptor signaling in dysglycemia.

Dopamine (DA) D2-like receptors in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the periphery are key modulators of metabolism. Moreover, disruption of D2-like receptor signaling is implicated in dysglycemia. Yet, the respective metabolic contributions of CNS versus peripheral D2-like receptors including D2 (D2R) and D3 (D3R) receptors remain poorly understood. To address this, we developed new pharmacological tools, D2-like receptor agonists with diminished and delayed blood-brain barrier capability, to selectively manipulate D2R/D3R signaling in the periphery. We designated bromocriptine methiodide (BrMeI), a quaternary methiodide analogue of D2/3R agonist and diabetes drug bromocriptine, as our lead compound based on preservation of D2R/D3R binding and functional efficacy. We then used BrMeI and unmodified bromocriptine to dissect relative contributions of CNS versus peripheral D2R/D3R signaling in treating dysglycemia. Systemic administration of bromocriptine, with unrestricted access to CNS and peripheral targets, significantly improved both insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in obese, dysglycemic mice in vivo. In contrast, metabolic improvements were attenuated when access to bromocriptine was restricted either to the CNS through intracerebroventricular administration or delayed access to the CNS via BrMeI. Our findings demonstrate that the coordinated actions of both CNS and peripheral D2-like receptors are required for correcting dysglycemia. Ultimately, the development of a first-generation of drugs designed to selectively target the periphery provides a blueprint for dissecting mechanisms of central versus peripheral DA signaling and paves the way for novel strategies to treat dysglycemia.

Pharmacologic Activity of Substituted Tryptamines at 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)2A Receptor (5-HT2AR), 5-HT2CR, 5-HT1AR, and Serotonin Transporter.

Novel psychoactive substances, including synthetic substituted tryptamines, represent a potential public health threat. Additionally, some substituted tryptamines are being studied under medical guidance as potential treatments of psychiatric disorders. Characterizing the basic pharmacology of substituted tryptamines will aid in understanding differences in potential for harm or therapeutic use. Using human embryonic kidney cells stably expressing 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)1A, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C receptors (5-HT1AR, 5-HT2AR, and 5HT2CR, respectively) or the serotonin transporter (SERT), we measured affinities, potencies and efficacies of 21 substituted tryptamines. With the exception of two 4-acetoxy compounds, substituted tryptamines exhibited affinities and potencies less than one micromolar at the 5-HT2AR, the primary target for psychedelic effects. In comparison, half or more exhibited low affinities/potencies at 5-HT2CR, 5-HT1AR, and SERT. Sorting by the ratio of 5-HT2A to 5-HT2C, 5-HT1A, or SERT affinity revealed chemical determinants of selectivity. We found that although 4-substituted compounds exhibited affinities that ranged across a factor of 100, they largely exhibited high selectivity for 5-HT2ARs versus 5-HT1ARs and 5-HT2CRs. 5-substituted compounds exhibited high affinities for 5-HT1ARs, low affinities for 5-HT2CRs, and a range of affinities for 5-HT2ARs, resulting in selectivity for 5-HT2ARs versus 5-HT2CRs but not versus 5-HT1ARs. Additionally, a number of psychedelics bound to SERT, with non-ring-substituted tryptamines most consistently exhibiting binding. Interestingly, substituted tryptamines and known psychedelic standards exhibited a broad range of efficacies, which were lower as a class at 5-HT2ARs compared with 5-HT2CRs and 5-HT1ARs. Conversely, coupling efficiency/amplification ratio was highest at 5-HT2ARs in comparison with 5-HT2CRs and 5-HT1ARs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Synthetic substituted tryptamines represent both potential public health threats and potential treatments of psychiatric disorders. The substituted tryptamines tested differed in affinities, potencies, and efficacies at 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)2A, 5-HT2C, and 5HT1A receptors and the serotonin transporter (SERT). Several compounds were highly selective for and coupled very efficiently downstream of 5-HT2A versus 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors, and some bound SERT. This basic pharmacology of substituted tryptamines helps us understand the pharmacologic basis of their potential for harm and as therapeutic agents.

A highly D3R-selective and efficacious partial agonist (S)-ABS01-113 compared to its D3R-selective antagonist enantiomer (R)-ABS01-113 as potential treatments for opioid use disorder.

The non-medical use of opioids has become a national crisis in the USA. Developing non-opioid pharmacotherapies for controlling this opioid epidemic is urgent. Dopamine D3 receptor (D3R) antagonists and low efficacy partial agonists have shown promising profiles in animal models of opioid use disorders (OUD). However, to date, advancement to human studies has been limited. Here we report the effects of (S)- and (R)-enantiomers of (±)-ABS01-113, structural analogs of the D3R partial agonist, (±)-VK4-40, in which the 3-OH in the linking chain is replaced by 3-F group. (S)- and (R)-ABS01-113 are identical in chemical structure but with opposite chirality. In vitro receptor binding and functional assays indicate that (S)-ABS01-113 is an efficacious (55%) and potent (EC50 = 7.6 ± 3.9 nM) D3R partial agonist, while the (R)-enantiomer is a potent D3R antagonist (IC50 = 11.4 nM). Both (S)- and (R)-ABS01-113 bind with high affinity to D3R (Ki = 0.84 ± 0.16 and 0.37 ± 0.06 nM, respectively); however, the (S)-enantiomer is more D3/D2-selective (>1000-fold). Pharmacokinetic analyses indicate that both enantiomers display excellent oral bioavailability and high brain penetration. Systemic administration of (S)- or (R)-ABS01-113 alone failed to alter open-field locomotion in male rats and mice. Interestingly, pretreatment with (S)- or (R)-ABS01-113 attenuated heroin-enhanced hyperactivity, heroin self-administration, and (heroin + cue)-induced reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. Together, these findings reveal that both enantiomers, particularly the highly selective and efficacious D3R partial agonist (S)-ABS01-113, demonstrate promising translational potential for the treatment of OUD.

Development of a Translational Model to Assess the Impact of Opioid Overdose and Naloxone Dosing on Respiratory Depression and Cardiac Arrest.

In response to a surge of deaths from synthetic opioid overdoses, there have been increased efforts to distribute naloxone products in community settings. Prior research has assessed the effectiveness of naloxone in the hospital setting; however, it is challenging to assess naloxone dosing regimens in the community/first-responder setting, including reversal of respiratory depression effects of fentanyl and its derivatives (fentanyls). Here, we describe the development and validation of a mechanistic model that combines opioid mu receptor binding kinetics, opioid agonist and antagonist pharmacokinetics, and human respiratory and circulatory physiology, to evaluate naloxone dosing to reverse respiratory depression. Validation supports our model, which can quantitatively predict displacement of opioids by naloxone from opioid mu receptors in vitro, hypoxia-induced cardiac arrest in vivo, and opioid-induced respiratory depression in humans from different fentanyls. After validation, overdose simulations were performed with fentanyl and carfentanil followed by administration of different intramuscular naloxone products. Carfentanil induced more cardiac arrest events and was more difficult to reverse than fentanyl. Opioid receptor binding data indicated that carfentanil has substantially slower dissociation kinetics from the opioid receptor compared with nine other fentanyls tested, which likely contributes to the difficulty in reversing carfentanil. Administration of the same dose of naloxone intramuscularly from two different naloxone products with different formulations resulted in differences in the number of virtual patients experiencing cardiac arrest. This work provides a robust framework to evaluate dosing regimens of opioid receptor antagonists to reverse opioid-induced respiratory depression, including those caused by newly emerging synthetic opioids.

New dual 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 receptor ligands derived from SYA16263.

We have previously reported that dual 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 receptor ligands might find utility as treatment options for various CNS related conditions including cognitive and anxiolytic impairments. We have also more recently reported that SYA16263 has antipsychotic-like properties with an absence of catalepsy in animal models ascribed to its ability to recruit ß-arrestin to the D2 receptor. However, SYA16263 also binds with very high affinity to 5-HT1AR (Ki = 1.1 nM) and a moderate affinity at 5-HT7R (Ki = 90 nM). Thus, it was of interest to exploit its pharmacophore elements in designing new dual receptor ligands. Using SYA16263 as the lead molecule, we have conducted a limited structure-affinity relationship (SAFIR) study by modifying various structural elements in the arylalkyl moiety, resulting in the identification of a new dual 5-HT1AR and 5-HT7R ligand, 6-chloro-2-methyl-2-(3-(4-(pyridin-2-yl)piperazin-1-yl)propyl)-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-1-one (21), which unlike SYA16263, has a sub-nanomolar (5-HT1AR, Ki = 0.74 nM) and a low nanomolar (5-HT7R, Ki = 8.4 nM) affinity for these receptors. Interestingly, 21 is a full agonist at 5-HT1AR and antagonist at the 5-HT7R, functional characteristics which point to its potential as an antidepressant agent.

Affinity, potency, efficacy, selectivity, and molecular modeling of substituted fentanyls at opioid receptors.

Substituted fentanyls are abused and cause rapid fatal overdose. As their pharmacology is not well characterized, we examined in vitro pharmacology and structure-activity relationships of 22 substituted fentanyls with modifications of the fentanyl propyl group, and conducted in silico receptor/ligand modeling. Affinities for mu, kappa, and delta opioid receptors (MOR, KOR, and DOR, respectively) heterologously expressed in mammalian cells were assessed in agonist radioligand binding assays. At MOR, furanyl fentanyl had higher affinity than fentanyl, while acryl, isobutyryl and cyclopropyl fentanyls had similar affinities. Comparing affinities, thiophene and methoxyacetyl fentanyls had highest selectivity for MOR (2520- and 2730-fold compared to KOR and DOR, respectively). Functional activities were assessed using [35S]GTPγS binding assays. At MOR, furanyl fentanyl had higher potency and 11 substituted fentanyls had similar high potencies compared to fentanyl. Eight compounds were full agonists of MOR and twelve compounds were partial agonists, with efficacies from 8.8% (phenyl fentanyl) to 60.2% (butyryl fentanyl). All efficacious compounds had selective functional potency for MOR. The predicted binding poses of flexible fentanyl and rigid morphine against MOR show partially overlapping binding pockets, with fentanyl maintaining additional interaction with the transmembrane (TM) 2 helix. Subsequent molecular dynamics simulations revealed a predominant fentanyl binding pose involving various TM interactions. The piperidine nitrogen of substituted fentanyls establishes a salt-bridge with the conserved D-1473.32 residue and the propanamide carbonyl group establishes a hydrogen bond with the indole side-chain (-NH) of W-3187.35. The simulation suggests theN-linked phenethyl group may regulate the rotameric switch of W-2936.48. The predicted binding pose, in conjunction with in vitro binding affinity, clarified the molecular basis of the binding/selectivity profile of furanyl fentanyl and other derivatives at the sequence level. In summary, substituted fentanyls with high MOR potencies, selectivities, and efficacies are likely to have abuse and overdose potential. The work presented here is a prototype to investigate fentanyl derivatives and their abuse potential.

Fentanyl but not Morphine Interacts with Nonopioid Recombinant Human Neurotransmitter Receptors and Transporters.

Synthetic opioids, including fentanyl and its analogs, have therapeutic efficacy in analgesia and anesthesia. However, their illicit use in the United States has increased and contributed to the number one cause of death for adults 18-50 years old. Fentanyl and the heroin metabolite morphine induce respiratory depression that can be treated with the µ opioid receptor (MOR) antagonist naloxone. With higher or more rapid dosing, fentanyl, more than morphine, causes chest wall rigidity and can also induce rapid onset laryngospasm. Because non-MORs could mediate differing clinical manifestations, we examined the interactions of fentanyl and morphine at recombinant human neurotransmitter transporters, G protein-coupled receptors, and the N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor. Both drugs were agonists at MOR, κ, and δ opioid receptors. Morphine had little or no affinity at other human receptors and transporters (K i or IC50 value >100 µM). However, fentanyl had K i values of 1407 and 1100 nM at α 1A and α 1B adrenoceptor subtypes, respectively, and K i values of 1049 and 1670 nM at dopamine D4.4 and D1 receptor subtypes, respectively; it also blocked [3H]neurotransmitter uptake by the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (IC50 = 911 nM). Pharmacokinetic models indicate that these Ki and IC50 values are pharmacologically relevant. Fentanyl had little affinity for other receptors or transporters. Thus, noradrenergic disposition at specific receptor subtypes in relevant organs may play a role in respiratory and cardiothoracic effects of fentanyl. Data suggest that less selective fentanyl receptor pharmacology could play a role in the different clinical effects of morphine compared with fentanyl, including fentanyl-induced deaths after illicit use. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The synthetic opioid fentanyl induces different clinical effects, including rapid onset muscular rigidity, vocal cord closure, and rapid death, than the heroin metabolite morphine. Our data indicate for the first time that the two drugs have very different effects at recombinant human neurotransmitter receptors and transporters that might explain those clinical differences.

Activation of Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 Stimulates an Antiapoptotic Signal Cascade via Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 1/2.

Methamphetamine (MA) is highly addictive and neurotoxic, causing cell death in humans and in rodent models. MA, along with many of its analogs, is an agonist at the G protein-coupled trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). TAAR1 activation protects against MA-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, suggesting that TAAR1 plays a role in regulating MA-induced neurotoxicity. However, the mechanisms involved in TAAR1's role in neurotoxicity and cell death have not been described in detail. In this study, we investigated the apoptosis pathway in Taar1 wild-type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice and in cells expressing the recombinant receptor. Bcl-2, an antiapoptotic protein, was upregulated ∼3-fold in the midbrain area (substantial nigra and ventral tegmental area) in Taar1 KO compared with WT mice, and MA significantly increased Bcl-2 expression in WT mice but decreased Bcl-2 expression in KO mice. The proapoptotic protein Bax did not differ across genotype or in response to MA. Bcl-2 expression was significantly upregulated by the TAAR1 agonist RO5166017 ((S)-4-[(ethyl-phenyl-amino)-methyl]-4,5-dihydro-oxazol-2-ylamine) in cells expressing the recombinant mouse TAAR1. Additionally, activation of TAAR1 by RO5166017 increased phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, and protein kinase B (AKT), but only inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation prevented TAAR1-induced increases in Bcl-2 levels, indicating that TAAR1 activation increases Bcl-2 through an ERK1/2-dependent pathway. All changes to ERK1/2 pathway intermediates were blocked by the TAAR1 antagonist, N-(3-ethoxyphenyl)-4-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl) benzamide. These findings suggest that TAAR1 activation protects against MA-induced cell apoptosis and TAAR1 may play a role in cell death in neurodegenerative diseases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Methamphetamine stimulates TAAR1, a G protein-coupled receptor. The role and mechanisms for TAAR1 in methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity are not known. Here, we report that, in genetic mouse models and cells expressing the recombinant receptor, TAAR1 activates the ERK1/2 pathway but not the AKT pathway to upregulate the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, which protects cells from drug-induced toxicity.

Structure-activity relationships of bath salt components: substituted cathinones and benzofurans at biogenic amine transporters.

RATIONALE: New psychoactive substances (NPSs), including substituted cathinones and other stimulants, are synthesized, sold on the Internet, and ingested without knowledge of their pharmacological activity and/or toxicity. In vitro pharmacology plays a role in therapeutic drug development, drug-protein in silico interaction modeling, and drug scheduling. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this research was to determine mechanisms of action that may indicate NPS abuse liability. METHODS: Affinities to displace the radioligand [125I]RTI-55 and potencies to inhibit [3H]neurotransmitter uptake for 22 cathinones, 6 benzofurans and another stimulant were characterized using human embryonic kidney cells stably expressing recombinant human transporters for dopamine, norepinephrine, or serotonin (hDAT, hNET, or hSERT, respectively). Selected compounds were tested for potencies and efficacies at inducing [3H]neurotransmitter release via the transporters. Computational modeling was conducted to explain plausible molecular interactions established by NPS and transporters. RESULTS: Most α-pyrrolidinophenones had high hDAT potencies and selectivities in uptake assays, with hDAT/hSERT uptake selectivity ratios of 83-360. Other substituted cathinones varied in their potencies and selectivities, with N-ethyl-hexedrone and N-ethyl-pentylone having highest hDAT potencies and N-propyl-pentedrone having highest hDAT selectivity. 4-Cl-ethcathinone and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-propylcathinone had higher hSERT selectivity. Benzofurans generally had low hDAT selectivity, especially 1-(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine, with 25-fold higher hSERT potency. Consistent with this selectivity, the benzofurans were releasers at hSERT. Modeling indicated key amino acids in the transporters' binding pockets that influence drug affinities. CONCLUSIONS: The α-pyrrolidinophenones, with high hDAT selectivity, have high abuse potential. Lower hDAT selectivity among benzofurans suggests similarity to methylenedioxymethamphetamine, entactogens with lower stimulant activity.

Repurposing of a Nucleoside Scaffold from Adenosine Receptor Agonists to Opioid Receptor Antagonists.

While screening off-target effects of rigid (N)-methanocarba-adenosine 5'-methylamides as A3 adenosine receptor (AR) agonists, we discovered µM binding hits at the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) and translocator protein (TSPO). In an effort to increase OR and decrease AR affinity by structure activity analysis of this series, antagonist activity at κ-(K)OR appeared in 5'-esters (ethyl 24 and propyl 30), which retained TSPO interaction (µM). 7-Deaza modification of C2-(arylethynyl)-5'-esters but not 4'-truncation enhanced KOR affinity (MRS7299 28 and 29, K i ≈ 40 nM), revealed µ-OR and DOR binding, and reduced AR affinity. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations located a putative KOR binding mode consistent with the observed affinities, placing C7 in a hydrophobic region. 3-Deaza modification permitted TSPO but not OR binding, and 1-deaza was permissive to both; ribose-restored analogues were inactive at both. Thus, we have repurposed a known AR nucleoside scaffold for OR antagonism, with a detailed hypothesis for KOR recognition.

Synthesis and Discovery of Arylpiperidinylquinazolines: New Inhibitors of the Vesicular Monoamine Transporter.

Methamphetamine, a human vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) substrate, releases dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine from vesicles into the cytosol of presynaptic neurons and induces reverse transport by the monoamine transporters to increase extracellular neurotransmitters. Currently available radioligands for VMAT2 have considerable liabilities: The binding of [3H]dihydrotetrabenazine ([3H]DHTB) to a site on VMAT2 is not dependent on ATP, and [3H]reserpine binds almost irreversibly to VMAT2. Herein we demonstrate that several arylpiperidinylquinazolines (APQs) are potent inhibitors of [3H]reserpine binding at recombinant human VMAT2 expressed in HEK-293 cells. These compounds are biodiastereoselective and bioenantioselective. The lead radiolabeled APQ is unique because it binds reversibly to VMAT2 but does not bind the [3H]DHTB binding site. Furthermore, experimentation shows that several novel APQ ligands have high potency for inhibition of uptake by both HEK-VMAT2 cells and mouse striatal vesicles and may be useful tools for characterizing drug-induced effects on human VMAT2 expression and function.

Neurochemical pharmacology of psychoactive substituted N-benzylphenethylamines: High potency agonists at 5-HT2A receptors.

The use of new psychoactive substituted 2,5-dimethoxy-N-benzylphenethylamines is associated with abuse and toxicity in the United States and elsewhere and their pharmacology is not well known. This study compares the mechanisms of action of 2-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25D-NBOMe), 2-(4-ethyl-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25E-NBOMe), 2-(2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25H-NBOMe), 2-(((4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethyl)amino)methyl)phenol (25I-NBOH); and 2-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine) (25N-NBOMe) with hallucinogens and stimulants. Mammalian cells heterologously expressing 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B or 5-HT2C receptors, or dopamine, serotonin or norepinephrine transporters (DAT, SERT and NET, respectively) were used to assess drug affinities at radioligand binding sites. Potencies and efficacies were determined using [35S]GTPγS binding assays (5-HT1A), inositol-phosphate accumulation assays (5-HT2A, 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C), and uptake and release assays (transporters). The substituted phenethylamines were very low potency and low efficacy agonists at the 5-HT1A receptor. 25D-NBOMe, 25E-NBOMe, 25H-NBOMe, 25I-NBOH and 25N-NBOMe had very high affinity for, and full efficacy at, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors. In the 5-HT2A receptor functional assay, 25D-NBOMe, 25E-NBOMe, 25I-NBOH and 25N-NBOMe had subnanomolar to low nanomolar potencies similar to (+)lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) while 25H-NBOMe had lower potency, similar to serotonin. At the 5-HT2C receptor, four had very high potencies, similar to LSD and serotonin, while 25H-NBOMe had lower potency. At the 5-HT2B receptor, the compounds had lower affinity, potency and efficacy compared to 5-HT2A or 5-HT2C. The phenethylamines had low to mid micromolar affinities and potencies at the transporters. These results demonstrate that these -NBOMe and -NBOH substituted phenethylamines have a biochemical pharmacology consistent with hallucinogenic activity, with little psychostimulant activity.

Verification of a genetic locus for methamphetamine intake and the impact of morphine.

A quantitative trait locus (QTL) on proximal chromosome (Chr) 10 accounts for > 50% of the genetic variance in methamphetamine (MA) intake in mice selectively bred for high (MAHDR) and low (MALDR) voluntary MA drinking. The µ-opioid receptor (MOP-r) gene, Oprm1, resides at the proximal end of Chr 10, and buprenorphine reduces MA intake in MAHDR mice. However, this drug has only partial agonist effects at MOP-r. We investigated the impact of a full MOP-r agonist, morphine, on MA intake and saccharin intake, measured MOP-r density and affinity in several brain regions of the MA drinking lines and their C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) progenitor strains, and measured MA intake in two congenic strains of mice to verify the QTL and reduce the QTL interval. Morphine reduced MA intake in the MAHDR line, but also reduced saccharin and total fluid intake. MOP-r density was lower in the medial prefrontal cortex of MAHDR, compared to MALDR, mice, but not in the nucleus accumbens or ventral midbrain; there were no MOP-r affinity differences. No significant differences in MOP-r density or affinity were found between the progenitor strains. Finally, Chr 10 congenic results were consistent with previous data suggesting that Oprm1 is not a quantitative trait gene, but is impacted by the gene network underlying MA intake. Stimulation of opioid pathways by a full agonist can reduce MA intake, but may also non-specifically affect consummatory behavior; thus, a partial agonist may be a better pharmacotherapeutic.

Scaffold Repurposing of Nucleosides (Adenosine Receptor Agonists): Enhanced Activity at the Human Dopamine and Norepinephrine Sodium Symporters.

We have repurposed (N)-methanocarba adenosine derivatives (A3 adenosine receptor (AR) agonists) to enhance radioligand binding allosterically at the human dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT) and inhibit DA uptake. We extended the structure-activity relationship of this series with small N6-alkyl substitution, 5'-esters, deaza modifications of adenine, and ribose restored in place of methanocarba. C2-(5-Halothien-2-yl)-ethynyl 5'-methyl 9 (MRS7292) and 5'-ethyl 10 (MRS7232) esters enhanced binding at DAT (EC50 ∼ 35 nM) and at the norepinephrine transporter (NET). 9 and 10 were selective for DAT compared to A3AR in the mouse but not in humans. At DAT, the binding of two structurally dissimilar radioligands was enhanced; NET binding of only one radioligand was enhanced; SERT radioligand binding was minimally affected. 10 was more potent than cocaine at inhibiting DA uptake (IC50 = 107 nM). Ribose analogues were weaker in DAT interaction than the corresponding bicyclics. Thus, we enhanced the neurotransmitter transporter activity of rigid nucleosides while reducing A3AR affinity.

Structure-Activity Relationships of Substituted Cathinones, with Transporter Binding, Uptake, and Release.

Synthetic cathinones are components of "bath salts" and have physical and psychologic side effects, including hypertension, paranoia, and hallucinations. Here, we report interactions of 20 "bath salt" components with human dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transporters [human dopamine transporter (hDAT), human serotonin transporter (hSERT), and human norepinephrine transporter (hNET), respectively] heterologously expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Transporter inhibitors had nanomolar to micromolar affinities (Ki values) at radioligand binding sites, with relative affinities of hDAT>hNET>hSERT for α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (α-PPP), α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone, α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone, 1-phenyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-heptanone, 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone, 4-methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, 4-methoxy-α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, α-pyrrolidinopentiothiophenone (alpha-PVT), and α-methylaminovalerophenone, and hDAT>hSERT>hNET for methylenedioxypentedrone. Increasing the α-carbon chain length increased the affinity and potency of the α-pyrrolidinophenones. Uptake inhibitors had relative potencies of hDAT>hNET>hSERT except α-PPP and α-PVT, which had highest potencies at hNET. They did not induce [3H]neurotransmitter release. Substrates can enter presynaptic neurons via transporters, and the substrates methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine are neurotoxic. We determined that 3-fluoro-, 4-bromo-, 4-chloro-methcathinone, and 4-fluoroamphetamine were substrates at all three transporters; 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) were substrates primarily at hSERT and hNET; and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylcathinone (ethylone) and 5-methoxy-methylone were substrates only at hSERT and induced [3H]neurotransmitter release. Significant correlations between potencies for inhibition of uptake and for inducing release were observed for these and additional substrates. The excellent correlation of efficacy at stimulating release versus Ki/IC50 ratios suggested thresholds of binding/uptake ratios above which compounds were likely to be substrates. Based on their potencies at hDAT, most of these compounds have potential for abuse and addiction. 4-Bromomethcathinone, 4-MEC, 5-methoxy-methylone, ethylone, and MDAI, which have higher potencies at hSERT than hDAT, may have empathogen psychoactivity.

Genetic Polymorphisms Affect Mouse and Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 Function.

Methamphetamine (MA) and neurotransmitter precursors and metabolites such as tyramine, octopamine, and ß-phenethylamine stimulate the G protein-coupled trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). TAAR1 has been implicated in human conditions including obesity, schizophrenia, depression, fibromyalgia, migraine, and addiction. Additionally TAAR1 is expressed on lymphocytes and astrocytes involved in inflammation and response to infection. In brain, TAAR1 stimulation reduces synaptic dopamine availability and alters glutamatergic function. TAAR1 is also expressed at low levels in heart, and may regulate cardiovascular tone. Taar1 knockout mice orally self-administer more MA than wild type and are insensitive to its aversive effects. DBA/2J (D2) mice express a non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in Taar1 that does not respond to MA, and D2 mice are predisposed to high MA intake, compared to C57BL/6 (B6) mice. Here we demonstrate that endogenous agonists stimulate the recombinant B6 mouse TAAR1, but do not activate the D2 mouse receptor. Progeny of the B6XD2 (BxD) family of recombinant inbred (RI) strains have been used to characterize the genetic etiology of diseases, but contrary to expectations, BXDs derived 30-40 years ago express only the functional B6 Taar1 allele whereas some more recently derived BXD RI strains express the D2 allele. Data indicate that the D2 mutation arose subsequent to derivation of the original RIs. Finally, we demonstrate that SNPs in human TAAR1 alter its function, resulting in expressed, but functional, sub-functional and non-functional receptors. Our findings are important for identifying a predisposition to human diseases, as well as for developing personalized treatment options.

Rigid Adenine Nucleoside Derivatives as Novel Modulators of the Human Sodium Symporters for Dopamine and Norepinephrine.

Thirty-two congeneric rigid adenine nucleoside derivatives containing a North (N)-methanocarba ribose substitution and a 2-arylethynyl group either enhanced (up to 760% of control) or inhibited [(125)I] methyl (1R,2S,3S)-3-(4-iodophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate (RTI-55) binding at the human dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT) and inhibited DA uptake. Several nucleosides also enhanced [(3)H]mazindol [(±)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3,5-dihydro-2H-imidazo[2,1-a]isoindol-5-ol] binding to the DAT. The combination of binding enhancement and functional inhibition suggests possible allosteric interaction with the tropanes. The structure-activity relationship of this novel class of DAT ligands was explored: small N(6)-substition (methyl or ethyl) was favored, while the N1 of the adenine ring was essential. Effective terminal aryl groups include thien-2-yl (compounds 9 and 16), with EC50 values of 35.1 and 9.1 nM, respectively, in [(125)I]RTI-55 binding enhancement, and 3,4-difluorophenyl as in the most potent DA uptake inhibitor (compound 6) with an IC50 value of 92 nM (3-fold more potent than cocaine), but not nitrogen heterocycles. Several compounds inhibited or enhanced binding at the norepinephrine transporter (NET) and serotonin transporter (SERT) and inhibited function in the micromolar range; truncation at the 4'-position in compound 23 allowed for weak inhibition of the SERT. We have not yet eliminated adenosine receptor affinity from this class of DAT modulators, but we identified modifications that remove DAT inhibition as an off-target effect of potent adenosine receptor agonists. Thus, we have identified a new class of allosteric DAT ligands, rigidified adenosine derivatives, and explored their initial structural requirements. They display a very atypical pharmacological profile, i.e., either enhancement by increasing affinity or inhibition of radioligand binding at the DAT, and in some cases the NET and SERT, and inhibition of neurotransmitter uptake.

Paved with good intentions: Paradoxical eating responses to weight stigma.

Because body weight is largely seen as controllable, weight stigma-the social devaluation of those who are overweight-is not subject to the social norms that condemn open expression of racism and sexism. Indeed, rejection of peers based on perceptions of excess weight is normative. Since weight stigma is internalized, popular views (and often the views of physicians) have suggested that increasing the salience of weight stigma might produce a reduction in overeating and/or an increase in physical activity. However, that perspective is not rooted in scientific evidence. Recent randomized controlled designs demonstrate that stigma may promote overeating. Correlational evidence suggests that self-reported stigma experience is associated with risk for binge eating and decreased interest in physical exercise and dieting, for children and adults. In addition to reviewing these research studies, this paper examines the potential for intersectionality of stigma across multiple social identities and considers alternatives to stigmatizing weight loss interventions.