ABSTRACT
Ultraviolet light (UV)-induced DNA damage is repaired primarily by the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway. Gadd45 is a multifunctional protein that regulates NER. Gadd45-deficient keratinocytes fail to repair UV-induced DNA damage, but the mechanism by which Gadd45 stimulates repair of UV-induced DNA damage is unknown. p21WAF1/Cip1 (p21) is a well-characterized downstream target of p53 that binds to Gadd45 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). The role of p21 in NER is somewhat controversial, however, recent studies appear to suggest that it inhibits DNA repair by inhibiting PCNA activity. Since a physical interplay exists between p21, Gadd45 and PCNA, we hypothesized that Gadd45 promoted DNA repair via p21. Initially, we examined p21 protein expression in Gadd45-deficient and proficient mice and found a higher base level of p21 protein in Gadd45-deficient keratinocytes and in most other tissues. With these results, we next speculated on the role played by p21 in Gadd45 regulated NER, by exposing keratinocytes from wild-type, single and double knockout (Gadd45 and p21) mice to UV, and measuring the responses. We confirmed that Gadd45-deficient keratinocytes were defective in UV-induced NER, but interestingly Gadd45/p21-null keratinocytes had normal NER in response to UV. Furthermore, Gadd45/p21-null keratinocytes were more resistant to UV-induced cell death than Gadd45-deficient keratinocytes. These results support the hypothesis that Gadd45 enhances NER by negatively regulating basal p21 expression in keratinocytes.
Subject(s)
Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics , DNA Repair/radiation effects , Keratinocytes/cytology , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Ultraviolet Rays , Animals , Apoptosis/radiation effects , Cell Death/radiation effects , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21 , Gene Deletion , Keratinocytes/physiology , Keratinocytes/radiation effects , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Mice, Transgenic , Polymerase Chain ReactionABSTRACT
This study examines the role of p21(Waf-1) , a p53-dependent protein, in regulating mechanisms that protect keratinocytes against ultraviolet-B-induced cellular damage. Keratinocytes from p21(Waf-1) or p53-deficient mice were irradiated with ultraviolet B, and examined for DNA repair, cell cycle progression, and cell death. Both p21(Waf-1) -deficient and p53-deficient cells failed to maintain G2 arrest, and p21(Waf-1) -deficient cells, and to a lesser extent p53-deficient cells, also failed to undergo G1 arrest. After exposure to ultraviolet B, p53-deficient cells were more susceptible to cell death than wild-type cells. p21(Waf-1) -deficient cells did not undergo apoptotic cell death more often, however, but did have an increased frequency of nuclear abnormalities, suggesting mitotic catastrophe. TUNEL assay showed DNA fragmentation in the p53 +/+, p21(Waf-1) +/+, and p53 -/- cells, but not in p21(Waf-1) -/- cells. This result is consistent with the suggestion that p21(Waf-1) -deficient keratinocytes undergo mitotic cell death (catastrophe) after exposure to ultraviolet B irradiation in the system. Western analysis demonstrated that p21(Waf-1) expression was upregulated in p53-proficient and -deficient keratinocytes, supporting the notion that a p53-independent mechanism contributes to the response to ultraviolet B in keratinocytes. Finally, p21(Waf-1) -deficient cells had slightly less efficient nucleotide excision repair. In summary, this study suggests that p21(Waf-1) regulates the ultraviolet-B-induced G2/M checkpoint through p53, and the G1 checkpoint partially through p53. p21(Waf-1) does not significantly regulate DNA repair in ultraviolet-irradiated keratinocytes, however.
