Correction: Back et al. A New Micromonospora Strain with Antibiotic Activity Isolated from the Microbiome of a Mid-Atlantic Deep-Sea Sponge. Mar. Drugs 2021, 19, 105.

After publication of this article [...].

From "crisis to recovery": A complete insight into the mechanisms of chlorine injury in the lung.

Chlorine (Cl2) gas is a toxic industrial chemical (TIC) that poses a hazard to human health following accidental and/or intentional (e.g. terrorist) release. By using a murine model of sub-lethal Cl2 exposure we have examined the airway hyper responsiveness, cellular infiltrates, transcriptomic and proteomic responses of the lung. In the "crisis" phase at 2 h and 6 h there is a significant decreases in leukocytes within bronchoalveolar lavage fluid accompanied by an upregulation within the proteome of immune pathways ultimately resulting in neutrophil influx at 24 h. A flip towards "repair" in the transcriptome and proteome occurs at 24 h, neutrophil influx and an associated drop in the lung function persisting until 14 d post-exposure and subsequent "recovery" after 28 days. Collectively, this research provides new insights into the mechanisms of damage, early global responses and processes of repair induced in the lung following the inhalation of Cl2.

MLVA and com1 genotyping of Coxiella burnetii in farmed ruminants in Great Britain.

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of the zoonotic disease Q fever, has been shown to be endemic in Great Britain, but information on the prevailing genomic lineages or Genomic Groups (GGs) of Coxiella burnetii is limited. The aim of this study was to genotype C. burnetii isolates from infected farmed ruminants by Multiple Locus Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA) and identify their associated Genomic Group. A total of 51 Coxiella-containing abortion samples from farmed ruminants (sheep, goats, and cattle), which were collected in Great Britain during 2013-2018, were included in the study, 34 of which returned a C. burnetii MLVA genotype. All bovine samples (n = 18), 5/7 of the ovine samples, and 3/9 of the caprine samples belonged to an MLVA cluster which we could link to the MST20 genotype of GG III, whereas 6/9 of the caprine samples and 2/7 of the ovine samples belonged to MLVA clusters which we could link to the MST33 or MST32 genotypes of GG II (7 vs 1 sample(s), respectively). We also noted that the Coxiella-specific com1 gene contained unique mutations that could genomotype isolates, i.e. assign them to a Genomic Group. In conclusion, both goats and sheep in Great Britain (from 2014 onward) were found to carry the same MLVA genotypes (MST33-like; GG II) that were linked to a human Q fever outbreak in the Netherlands. This knowledge in combination with the usage of genotyping/genomotyping methods should prove useful in future surveillance programs and in the management of outbreaks.

Correlating Genotyping Data of Coxiella burnetii with Genomic Groups.

Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic pathogen that resides in wild and domesticated animals across the globe and causes a febrile illness, Q fever, in humans. Several distinct genetic lineages or genomic groups have been shown to exist, with evidence for different virulence potential of these lineages. Multispacer Sequence Typing (MST) and Multiple-Locus Variable number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA) are being used to genotype strains. However, it is unclear how these typing schemes correlate with each other or with the classification into different genomic groups. Here, we created extensive databases for published MLVA and MST genotypes of C. burnetii and analysed the associated metadata, revealing associations between animal host and human disease type. We established a new classification scheme that assigns both MST and MLVA genotypes to a genomic group and which revealed additional sub-lineages in two genomic groups. Finally, we report a novel, rapid genomotyping method for assigning an isolate into a genomic group based on the Cox51 spacer sequence. We conclude that by pooling and streamlining existing datasets, associations between genotype and clinical outcome or host source were identified, which in combination with our novel genomotyping method, should enable an estimation of the disease potential of new C. burnetii isolates.

A New Micromonospora Strain with Antibiotic Activity Isolated from the Microbiome of a Mid-Atlantic Deep-Sea Sponge.

To tackle the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, it is essential to identify new bioactive compounds that are effective against resistant microbes and safe to use. Natural products and their derivatives are, and will continue to be, an important source of these molecules. Sea sponges harbour a diverse microbiome that co-exists with the sponge, and these bacterial communities produce a rich array of bioactive metabolites for protection and resource competition. For these reasons, the sponge microbiota constitutes a potential source of clinically relevant natural products. To date, efforts in bioprospecting for these compounds have focused predominantly on sponge specimens isolated from shallow water, with much still to be learned about samples from the deep sea. Here we report the isolation of a new Micromonospora strain, designated 28ISP2-46T, recovered from the microbiome of a mid-Atlantic deep-sea sponge. Whole-genome sequencing reveals the capacity of this bacterium to produce a diverse array of natural products, including kosinostatin and isoquinocycline B, which exhibit both antibiotic and antitumour properties. Both compounds were isolated from 28ISP2-46T fermentation broths and were found to be effective against a plethora of multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. This study suggests that the marine production of isoquinocyclines may be more widespread than previously supposed and demonstrates the value of targeting the deep-sea sponge microbiome as a source of novel microbial life with exploitable biosynthetic potential.

The Bristol Sponge Microbiome Collection: A Unique Repository of Deep-Sea Microorganisms and Associated Natural Products.

The deep ocean is the largest habitat for life on Earth, though the microorganisms that occupy this unique environmental niche remain largely unexplored. Due to the significant logistical and operational challenges associated with accessing the deep ocean, bioprospecting programmes that seek to generate novel products from marine organisms have, to date, focused predominantly on samples recovered from shallow seas. For this reason, the deep ocean remains a largely untapped resource of novel microbiological life and associated natural products. Here we report the establishment of the Bristol Sponge Microbiome Collection (BISECT), a unique repository of deep-sea microorganisms and associated metabolites isolated from the microbiota of marine sponges, recovered from previously unsurveyed regions of the mid Atlantic Ocean, at depths of 0.3-3 km. An integrated biodiscovery pipeline comprising molecular, genetic, bioinformatic and analytical tools is also described, which is being applied to interrogate this collection. The potential of this approach is illustrated using data reporting our initial efforts to identify antimicrobial natural product lead compounds. Prospects for the use of BISECT to address allied pharmaceutical needs, along with mechanisms of access to the collection are also discussed.

Common Host Responses in Murine Aerosol Models of Infection Caused by Highly Virulent Gram-Negative Bacteria from the Genera Burkholderia, Francisella and Yersinia.

Highly virulent bacterial pathogens cause acute infections which are exceptionally difficult to treat with conventional antibiotic therapies alone. Understanding the chain of events that are triggered during an infection of a host has the potential to lead to new therapeutic strategies. For the first time, the transcriptomic responses within the lungs of Balb/C mice have been compared during an acute infection with the intracellular pathogens Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularensis and Yersinia pestis. Temporal changes were determined using RNAseq and a bioinformatics pipeline; expression of protein was also studied from the same sample. Collectively it was found that early transcriptomic responses within the infected host were associated with the (a) slowing down of critical cellular functions, (b) production of circulatory system components, (c) lung tissue integrity, and (d) intracellular regulatory processes. One common molecule was identified, Errfi1 (ErbB receptor feedback inhibitor 1); upregulated in response to all three pathogens and a potential novel marker of acute infection. Based upon the pro-inflammatory responses observed, we sought to synchronise each infection and report that 24 h p.i. of B. pseudomallei infection closely aligned with 48 h p.i. of infection with F. tularensis and Y. pestis. Post-transcriptional modulation of RANTES expression occurred across all pathogens, suggesting that these infections directly or indirectly modulate cell trafficking through chemokine expression/detection. Collectively, this unbiased NGS approach has provided an in-depth characterisation of the host transcriptome following infection with these highly virulent pathogens ultimately aiding in the development of host-directed therapies as adjuncts or alternatives to antibiotic treatment.

Extensive genome analysis of Coxiella burnetii reveals limited evolution within genomic groups.

BACKGROUND: Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic pathogen that resides in wild and domesticated animals across the globe and causes a febrile illness, Q fever, in humans. An improved understanding of the genetic diversity of C. burnetii is essential for the development of diagnostics, vaccines and therapeutics, but genotyping data is lacking from many parts of the world. Sporadic outbreaks of Q fever have occurred in the United Kingdom, but the local genetic make-up of C. burnetii has not been studied in detail. RESULTS: Here, we report whole genome data for nine C. burnetii sequences obtained in the UK. All four genomes of C. burnetii from cattle, as well as one sheep sample, belonged to Multi-spacer sequence type (MST) 20, whereas the goat samples were MST33 (three genomes) and MST32 (one genome), two genotypes that have not been described to be present in the UK to date. We established the phylogenetic relationship between the UK genomes and 67 publically available genomes based on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the core genome, which confirmed tight clustering of strains within genomic groups, but also indicated that sub-groups exist within those groups. Variation is mainly achieved through SNPs, many of which are non-synonymous, thereby confirming that evolution of C. burnetii is based on modification of existing genes. Finally, we discovered genomic-group specific genome content, which supports a model of clonal expansion of previously established genotypes, with large scale dissemination of some of these genotypes across continents being observed. CONCLUSIONS: The genetic make-up of C. burnetii in the UK is similar to the one in neighboring European countries. As a species, C. burnetii has been considered a clonal pathogen with low genetic diversity at the nucleotide level. Here, we present evidence for significant variation at the protein level between isolates of different genomic groups, which mainly affects secreted and membrane-associated proteins. Our results thereby increase our understanding of the global genetic diversity of C. burnetii and provide new insights into the evolution of this emerging zoonotic pathogen.

Zoonoses under our noses.

One Health is an effective approach for the management of zoonotic disease in humans, animals and environments. Examples of the management of bacterial zoonoses in Europe and across the globe demonstrate that One Health approaches of international surveillance, information-sharing and appropriate intervention methods are required to successfully prevent and control disease outbreaks in both endemic and non-endemic regions. Additionally, a One Health approach enables effective preparation and response to bioterrorism threats.

Burkholderia pseudomallei sequencing identifies genomic clades with distinct recombination, accessory, and epigenetic profiles.

Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp) is the causative agent of the infectious disease melioidosis. To investigate population diversity, recombination, and horizontal gene transfer in closely related Bp isolates, we performed whole-genome sequencing (WGS) on 106 clinical, animal, and environmental strains from a restricted Asian locale. Whole-genome phylogenies resolved multiple genomic clades of Bp, largely congruent with multilocus sequence typing (MLST). We discovered widespread recombination in the Bp core genome, involving hundreds of regions associated with multiple haplotypes. Highly recombinant regions exhibited functional enrichments that may contribute to virulence. We observed clade-specific patterns of recombination and accessory gene exchange, and provide evidence that this is likely due to ongoing recombination between clade members. Reciprocally, interclade exchanges were rarely observed, suggesting mechanisms restricting gene flow between clades. Interrogation of accessory elements revealed that each clade harbored a distinct complement of restriction-modification (RM) systems, predicted to cause clade-specific patterns of DNA methylation. Using methylome sequencing, we confirmed that representative strains from separate clades indeed exhibit distinct methylation profiles. Finally, using an E. coli system, we demonstrate that Bp RM systems can inhibit uptake of non-self DNA. Our data suggest that RM systems borne on mobile elements, besides preventing foreign DNA invasion, may also contribute to limiting exchanges of genetic material between individuals of the same species. Genomic clades may thus represent functional units of genetic isolation in Bp, modulating intraspecies genetic diversity.

Evaluation of two multiplex real-time PCR screening capabilities for the detection of Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis and Yersinia pestis in blood samples generated from murine infection models.

Two multiplex PCR screening capabilities (TaqMan Array Cards and FilmArray) were evaluated for their ability to detect Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis and Yersinia pestis in blood samples obtained from respective murine infection models. Blood samples were obtained from infected mice at 24 h intervals after exposure. Multiplex PCR results were compared with standard blood culture and singleplex real-time PCR. Across all three models, 71 mice were tested in total, within which a subset of 43 samples was shown to contain an infecting agent by at least one of the detection technologies. Within this subset of positive samples, for each model studied, the detection rates of each technology were compared. The B. anthracis model blood culture (14 of 15 agent-containing samples tested) and FilmArray PCR (12 of 15) were shown to have equivalent detection rates, which were significantly higher (at the 95 % confidence level) than singleplex (five of 14) or Array Card (two of 14) PCRs. The F. tularensis model blood culture (12 of 12) was shown to have a significantly higher (at 95 % confidence level) detection rate than all PCR technologies, with FilmArray (seven of 11) and singleplex (seven of 12) PCRs shown to have significantly higher (at 95 % confidence level) detection rates than the Array Card PCR (two of 11). Within the Y. pestis model, there was no significant difference in detection rates between blood culture (10 of 16), singleplex PCR (14 of 16), Array Card PCR (10 of 16) and FilmArray PCR (10 of 13).

A Burkholderia pseudomallei toxin inhibits helicase activity of translation factor eIF4A.

The structure of BPSL1549, a protein of unknown function from Burkholderia pseudomallei, reveals a similarity to Escherichia coli cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1. We found that BPSL1549 acted as a potent cytotoxin against eukaryotic cells and was lethal when administered to mice. Expression levels of bpsl1549 correlate with conditions expected to promote or suppress pathogenicity. BPSL1549 promotes deamidation of glutamine-339 of the translation initiation factor eIF4A, abolishing its helicase activity and inhibiting translation. We propose to name BPSL1549 Burkholderia lethal factor 1.

Flagellar glycosylation in Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia thailandensis.

Glycosylation of proteins is known to impart novel physical properties and biological roles to proteins from both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In this study, gel-based glycoproteomics were used to identify glycoproteins of the potential biothreat agent Burkholderia pseudomallei and the closely related but nonpathogenic B. thailandensis. Top-down and bottom-up mass spectrometry (MS) analyses identified that the flagellin proteins of both species were posttranslationally modified by novel glycans. Analysis of proteins from two strains of each species demonstrated that B. pseudomallei flagellin proteins were modified with a glycan with a mass of 291 Da, while B. thailandensis flagellin protein was modified with related glycans with a mass of 300 or 342 Da. Structural characterization of the B. thailandensis carbohydrate moiety suggests that it is an acetylated hexuronic acid. In addition, we have identified through mutagenesis a gene from the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) O-antigen biosynthetic cluster which is involved in flagellar glycosylation, and inactivation of this gene eliminates flagellar glycosylation and motility in B. pseudomallei. This is the first report to conclusively demonstrate the presence of a carbohydrate covalently linked to a protein in B. pseudomallei and B. thailandensis, and it suggests new avenues to explore in order to examine the marked differences in virulence between these two species.

Inhibition of Francisella tularensis LVS infection of macrophages results in a reduced inflammatory response: evaluation of a therapeutic strategy for intracellular bacteria.

Francisella tularensis is an intracellular pathogen and is able to invade several different cell types, in particular macrophages, most commonly through phagocytosis. A flow cytometric assay was developed to measure bacterial uptake, using a fluorescein isothiocyanate-labelled anti-F. tularensis lipopolysaccharide antibody in conjunction with antibodies to cell surface markers, in order to determine the specific cell phenotypes that were positive for the bacteria. Several phagocytic inhibitors were evaluated in macrophage cell lines and a lung homogenate assay to determine whether the uptake of F. tularensis strain LVS could be altered. Our data show that cytochalasin B, LY294002, wortmannin, nocodazole, MG132 and XVA143 inhibitors reduced LVS uptake by >50% in these assays without having significant cytotoxic effects. Furthermore, a reduction in the inflammatory cytokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α was found in the supernatant of lung tissue infected with LVS when the inhibitory compounds were present. Similarly, there was an alteration in bacterial uptake and a reduction in the inflammatory cytokine response following the administration of wortmannin to LVS-infected mice. Although wortmannin treatment alone did not correlate with the enhanced survival of LVS-infected mice, these inhibitors may have utility in combination therapeutic approaches or against other intracellular pathogens that use phagocytic mechanisms to enter their optimal niche.

A genomic survey of positive selection in Burkholderia pseudomallei provides insights into the evolution of accidental virulence.

Certain environmental microorganisms can cause severe human infections, even in the absence of an obvious requirement for transition through an animal host for replication ("accidental virulence"). To understand this process, we compared eleven isolate genomes of Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp), a tropical soil microbe and causative agent of the human and animal disease melioidosis. We found evidence for the existence of several new genes in the Bp reference genome, identifying 282 novel genes supported by at least two independent lines of supporting evidence (mRNA transcripts, database homologs, and presence of ribosomal binding sites) and 81 novel genes supported by all three lines. Within the Bp core genome, 211 genes exhibited significant levels of positive selection (4.5%), distributed across many cellular pathways including carbohydrate and secondary metabolism. Functional experiments revealed that certain positively selected genes might enhance mammalian virulence by interacting with host cellular pathways or utilizing host nutrients. Evolutionary modifications improving Bp environmental fitness may thus have indirectly facilitated the ability of Bp to colonize and survive in mammalian hosts. These findings improve our understanding of the pathogenesis of melioidosis, and establish Bp as a model system for studying the genetics of accidental virulence.

Evaluation of the VP22 protein for enhancement of a DNA vaccine against anthrax.

BACKGROUND: Previously, antigens expressed from DNA vaccines have been fused to the VP22 protein from Herpes Simplex Virus type I in order to improve efficacy. However, the immune enhancing mechanism of VP22 is poorly understood and initial suggestions that VP22 can mediate intercellular spread have been questioned. Despite this, fusion of VP22 to antigens expressed from DNA vaccines has improved immune responses, particularly to non-secreted antigens. METHODS: In this study, we fused the gene for the VP22 protein to the gene for Protective Antigen (PA) from Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax. Protective immunity against infection with B. anthracis is almost entirely based on a response to PA and we have generated two constructs, where VP22 is fused to either the N- or the C-terminus of the 63 kDa protease-cleaved fragment of PA (PA63). RESULTS: Following gene gun immunisation of A/J mice with these constructs, we observed no improvement in the anti-PA antibody response generated. Following an intraperitoneal challenge with 70 50% lethal doses of B. anthracis strain STI spores, no difference in protection was evident in groups immunised with the DNA vaccine expressing PA63 and the DNA vaccines expressing fusion proteins of PA63 with VP22. CONCLUSION: VP22 fusion does not improve the protection of A/J mice against live spore challenge following immunisation of DNA vaccines expressing PA63.

A type IV pilin, PilA, Contributes To Adherence of Burkholderia pseudomallei and virulence in vivo.

The Burkholderia pseudomallei K96243 genome contains multiple type IV pilin-associated loci, including one encoding a putative pilus structural protein (pilA). A pilA deletion mutant has reduced adherence to human epithelial cells and is less virulent in the nematode model of virulence and the murine model of melioidosis, suggesting a role for type IV pili in B. pseudomallei virulence.