Longitudinal associations between early risk and adolescent delinquency: Mediators, moderators, and main effects.

Although multiple domains of risk are theorized to predict adolescent delinquency, father-specific risk in the context of other risks is under-researched. Using the low-income Future of Families and Child Wellbeing cohort (48% Black, 27% Hispanic, 21% White, 51% boy, N = 4,255), the current study addressed three research questions. (1) are father-, mother-, child-, and family-level cumulative risk during early childhood associated with adolescent delinquent behavior?, (2) does child self-control in middle childhood mediate the associations between fathers' and mothers' cumulative risk and adolescent delinquent behavior, and do quality of parent's relationships with children and parental monitoring in middle childhood mediate the association between child cumulative risk and delinquent behavior?, (3) do parenting, quality of parent-child relationships in middle childhood, and child sex at birth moderate the associations among fathers', mothers', children's, and family risk and adolescent delinquent behavior? Results indicated father, child, and mother risk at ages 3-5 were significantly and positively associated with youth-reported delinquent behavior. Higher levels of family risk were associated with less delinquency when 9-year-olds felt closer to fathers than when they felt less close. Children's self-control at age 9 mediated the associations between father and child risk and delinquent behavior.

Explaining the long reach of prenatal behaviors and attitudes in unmarried men at birth on father engagement in early and middle childhood and adolescence.

The current study examined three research questions: (a) Are unmarried at birth fathers' prenatal and birth-related behavioral, attitudinal, and identity adjustments directly related to father engagement in child-related activities during early childhood and father-child closeness in middle childhood and adolescence? (b) Do father engagement in child-related activities during early childhood, coresidence, and coparenting at age 5 mediate the association between unmarried fathers' prenatal and birth-related variables and father-child relationship in middle childhood and adolescence? (c) Do father-child closeness, coresidence, and coparenting in middle childhood mediate the association between fathers' prenatal and birth-related variables and father-child relationship during adolescence? Using a subsample of Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing data (N = 2,647), we found support for our hypotheses that fathers' prenatal and birth-related variables significantly predicted father-child engagement during early childhood and father-child closeness during middle childhood and adolescence, although not all prenatal and birth-related variables are related to outcomes during each stage of childhood development. Father involvement and coparenting cooperation significantly mediated the associations among fathers' prenatal and birth-related variables and father-child closeness at ages 9 and 15. Our findings indicate that researchers, practitioners, and policymakers should take advantage of the prenatal period and direct resources to facilitate and strengthen prospective unmarried fathers' early relationships with their partners and children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal Associations Among Low-Income Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting and Relationships with Children and Adolescent Depression.

Few studies have examined the associations among quality of parent-child relationships, parenting, and adolescent depression in samples of low-income mothers and fathers with large numbers of nonresidential fathers. This study used the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing data (N = 3,384) to examine the longitudinal associations among parent-child closeness, harsh parenting, and neglect when children were nine years old and adolescent depression at age 15. The findings indicated that children who perceived having close relationships with mothers and fathers at age nine reported significantly less depression at age 15, regardless of residential status. Moderation analyses showed a stronger negative relationship between daughters' closeness with mothers and depression than sons' closeness with mothers and depression. Daughters and sons who were close to fathers reported less depression. There were no significant associations among harsh discipline or neglect and depression. The findings support the use of interventions that promote healthy attachments and close parent-child relationships between low-income parents and children.

Predictors of mothers' participation in a mother-only coparenting intervention conducted in fatherhood programs.

While fatherhood programs are increasingly implementing coparenting classes for mothers, very little is known about the circumstances that could increase or inhibit a mother's participation in joining such a class. The current study uses ecological systems theory to explore the microsystems, mesosystems, and macrosystems that relate to mothers' participation in a coparenting class. Pretest data from 277 fathers attending fatherhood programs are used to predict mothers' participation in a mother-only coparenting class. Fathers' perceived relationship quality, perceptions of the coparenting alliance, recent legal challenges, and residing in a rural/small-town community were significantly associated with whether the mother participated in the coparenting program. Fatherhood programs should address the issues that appear to deter mothers from participating in coparenting interventions, including high levels of couple conflict, recent father incarceration, and recent father trouble with the law.

Faces of Risk and Resilience: Fathers and Their Families.

The global Covid-19 pandemic and heightened focus on systemic racism in the USA provide differential lenses for considering contexts of risk and resilience as they apply to individual fathers and their families. Intersections of race, class, culture, personal characteristics, and access to resources uniquely shape fathers' resilience as they navigate risks to themselves and their families. The interdependence of families with other community members, family work, role enactments, gender, and policy highlights the centrality of fathers' executive function in conjunction with available resources to shape the quality of individual father-child relationships and the overall wellbeing of fathers and their families. This commentary focuses on the current pandemic and racism as risk factors for families, the ways in which fathers are uniquely affected by these risks, the ways in which fathers exhibit resilience in the face of these adversities, and implications for future research about the ways in which fathers' gendered behaviors and attitudes may ultimately change as a consequence of the pandemic and systemic racism.

Cognitive Stimulation at Home and in Child Care and Children's Preacademic Skills in Two-Parent Families.

This paper used the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (N = 1,258) to examine the influence of hilevels of cognitive stimulation from mothers, fathers, and childcare providers at 24 months and children's pre-academic skills at 48 and 60 months in two parent families. Results from path analysis showed direct positive effects of fathers' early cognitive stimulation on early reading and math skills at 48 and 60 months. There were also two moderated effects: The effects of high levels of maternal stimulation at 24 months on early math and reading skills at 48 months were largest for children also receiving high levels of cognitive stimulation from their childcare providers. Implications for including fathers in studies of the home cognitive stimulation and strengthening the parent-childcare connection are discussed.

Broadening the scope of father-child attachment research to include the family context.

The associations between caregiver sensitivity and child-parent attachment tend to be weaker among fathers than among mothers. In this commentary, I argue that researchers should pay more attention to child-parent attachment relationships in the context of the family, including coparenting relationships, gatekeeping, and amount of time mothers and fathers provide care to their children.

Fathers' Dosage in Community-based Programs for Low-income Fathers.

Community-based programs for low-income fathers often struggle to get fathers to attend services and activities. This paper reviews the literature examining approaches to measuring dosage in fatherhood programs, rates of dosage, influences on dosage, and the associations between dosage and fathers' outcomes. Studies were limited to programs that conducted randomized control trials, quasi-experimental studies, and one-group pretest/post-test designs. Although most programs report low or moderate dosage levels, some programs achieve high levels of fathers' participation in parenting, coparenting, and economic security classes. Few studies examined dosage in relation to father outcomes. All but one of seven studies reporting effects showed that higher dose levels had positive associations with outcomes such as engagement with children, parenting satisfaction and self-efficacy, perception of coparenting quality, payment of child support, and earnings from work. This paper discusses future directions for studying father's dosage in fatherhood programs.

En los programas comunitarios para padres de bajos recursos generalmente es difícil lograr que los padres asistan a los servicios y a las actividades que ofrecen. Este artículo revisa los métodos de análisis de las publicaciones para medir la cantidad de padres en los programas sobre paternidad, los índices de asistencia, las influencias en la asistencia y las asociaciones entre la asistencia y las respuestas de los padres. Los estudios se limitaron a los programas que llevaron a cabo ensayos controlados aleatorizados, estudios cuasiexperimentales y diseños de pruebas de entrada y pruebas de salida de un grupo. Aunque la mayoría de los programas informan niveles de asistencia bajos o moderados, algunos programas logran altos niveles de participación de los padres en las clases sobre crianza, cocrianza y seguridad económica de los niños. Pocos estudios analizaron la asistencia en relación con las respuestas de los padres. Todos excepto uno de siete estudios que informaron efectos indicaron que los niveles más altos de asistencia tuvieron asociaciones positivas con las respuestas de los padres, como compromiso con los niños, satisfacción con la crianza y autoeficacia, percepción de la calidad de la cocrianza, pago de la cuota alimentaria e ingresos de un trabajo. En este artículo se debaten las futuras direcciones para estudiar la asistencia de los padres en los programas sobre paternidad.

Coparenting and father engagement among low-income parents: Actor-partner interdependence model.

This study used a sample of 3,464 low-income couples from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to longitudinally study both mothers' and fathers' perceptions of coparental support and paternal engagement across Years 1 to 5 after the birth of a child. Longitudinal dyadic data analysis consistent with family systems theory and the actor-partner interdependence model allowed assessment of both independent actor effects and partner effects to assess the associations between prior coparental relationship quality, perceived paternal engagement, and subsequent family relationship quality. Findings revealed significant stability of within-construct actor effects across time coupled with significant, but weaker, within-construct partner effects to predict both perceived coparental support and father engagement. Findings provided partial evidence for bidirectional effects among coparenting support and father engagement during the first 5 years after the birth of a child. There was a consistent pattern of maternal and paternal perception of coparenting support predicting father engagement throughout early childhood, but these were mostly actor effects. There were fewer associations between perception of engagement and later coparenting, but these effects were not insubstantial. The study demonstrates the importance of collecting dyadic data, using couple-sensitive analyses, and implications for early family interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Advancing Research and Measurement on Fathering and Child Development.

Fathers are more than social accidents. Research has demonstrated that fathers matter to children's development. Despite noted progress, challenges remain on how best to conceptualize and assess fathering and father-child relationships. The current monograph is the result of an SRCD-sponsored meeting of fatherhood scholars brought together to discuss these challenges and make recommendations for best practices for incorporating fathers in studies on parenting and children's development. The first aim of this monograph was to provide a brief update on the current state of research on fathering and to lay out a developmental ecological systems perspective as a conceptual framework for understanding the different spaces fathers inhabit in their children's lives. Because there is wide variability in fathers' roles, the ecological systems perspective situates fathers, mothers, children, and other caregivers within an evolving network of interrelated social relationships in which children and their parents change over time and space (e.g., residence). The second aim was to present examples of empirical studies conducted by members of the international working group that highlighted different methods, data collection, and statistical analyses used to capture the variability in father-child relationships. The monograph ends with a commentary that elaborates on the ecological systems framework with a discussion of the broader macrosystem and social-contextual influences that impinge on fathers and their children. The collection of articles contributes to research on father-child relationships by advancing theory and presenting varied methods and analysis strategies that assist in understanding the father-child relationship and its impact on child development.

Family structure change among Latinos: Variation by ecologic risk.

We examined differences in family structure change in an urban sample of mothers (N= 1,314) from their child's birth to age 5 and whether ecological risk moderated this association. We found that compared to U.S.-born Latino mothers, foreign-born Latino mothers were 62% less likely to break up and 75% less likely to repartner than remain stably resident. Across nativity status, Latina mothers with fewer children, more economic stress, less income, and less frequently reported father involvement were more likely to break up and repartner than remain stably resident. We found no moderation effects of ecological risk.

Longitudinal associations between mothers' perceptions of nonresidential fathers' investment of resources and influence in decision-making.

Nonresidential fathers are challenged to remain involved with their children across time in both direct and indirect ways, including influencing decision-making around important issues such as school attendance and medical care. An analytic sample of 1,350 families with residential mothers and nonresidential fathers was selected from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) to examine the longitudinal relationships between mothers' reports of nonresidential fathers' influence in decision-making and their provision of resources to their children. Findings indicate that fathers' voluntary contribution of tangible resources (informal child support, caregiving time) when children are 2 years old positively predict fathers' influence in decision-making regarding the care of their 4-year-old children. Fathers' early formal child support is not related to later decision-making. Fathers' communication with mother about the child at 24 months is related to later decision-making among daughters but not sons. Fathers' early decision-making is longitudinally related to later informal child support, caregiving time, and coparenting communication. The findings support the utility of a resource theory of fathering for understanding and predicting observed patterns of father involvement. (PsycINFO Database Record

Self-perceived Coparenting of Nonresident Fathers: Scale Development and Validation.

This study reports on the development and validation of the Fatherhood Research and Practice Network coparenting perceptions scale for nonresident fathers. Although other measures of coparenting have been developed, this is the first measure developed specifically for low-income, nonresident fathers. Focus groups were conducted to determine various aspects of coparenting. Based on this, a scale was created and administered to 542 nonresident fathers. Participants also responded to items used to examine convergent and predictive validity (i.e., parental responsibility, contact with the mother, father self-efficacy and satisfaction, child behavior problems, and contact and engagement with the child). Factor analyses and reliability tests revealed three distinct and reliable perceived coparenting factors: undermining, alliance, and gatekeeping. Validity tests suggest substantial overlap between the undermining and alliance factors, though undermining was uniquely related to child behavior problems. The alliance and gatekeeping factors showed strong convergent validity and evidence for predictive validity. Taken together, results suggest this relatively short measure (11 items) taps into three coparenting dimensions significantly predictive of aspects of individual and family life.

Father-child closeness and conflict: Validating measures for nonresident fathers.

A child's relationship with his or her nonresident father has been found to be related to that child's development in important ways. However, validated measures of the relationship between nonresident fathers and their children are rare, particularly for low-income nonresident fathers. To provide guidance for researchers and practitioners evaluating nonresident fatherhood programs, this study uses a sample of 420 primarily low-income nonresident fathers to examine the reliability, convergent validity, and predictive validity of measures of father-child closeness and conflict contained in the Child-Parent Relationship Scale-Short Form (CPRS-SF). Validity was examined across 3 child age groups: preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence. The CPRS-SF closeness scale demonstrated measurement equivalence across time (conflict did not) and had excellent reliability and validity. Compared to the closeness scale, the CPRS-SF conflict scale was related to fewer validity items but still showed both convergent and predictive validity, including predicting child behavior problems (which the closeness scale did not). Both the closeness and conflict scales are recommended for use with low-income nonresident fathers. Age differences in validity findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Low-income, nonresident fathers' coparenting with multiple mothers and relatives: Effects on fathering.

Low-income, nonresident fathers are often involved in complex coparenting networks that may involve multiple mothers, relatives, and other adults. However, the coparenting literature has often obscured this complexity through limiting attention to father-mother relationships. The current study used family systems theory to examine the effects of fathers' coparenting with mothers and relatives on fathers' parenting self-efficacy, father-child closeness, and father-child conflict. Predictors included the number of fathers' coparenting mothers and relatives, the quality of those coparenting relationships, and coparenting alliances specifically between fathers and the biological mother of a target child. Approximately 19% of a community sample of fathers (N = 401) reported more than 1 mother in their coparenting network, and 63% reported at least 1 relative. Overall, fathers who reported having more-cooperative coparenting relatives in their networks reported higher parenting self-efficacy and father-child closeness. We further noted a race or ethnicity interaction effect for closeness and conflict, such that having more-cooperative coparenting relatives was associated with increased closeness for non-Hispanic Black fathers but not for non-Hispanic White fathers. Amount of cooperation with coparenting relatives was associated with increased conflict for non-Hispanic Black fathers but not for Hispanic fathers. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Pilot Study of a Program to Increase Mothers' Understanding of Dads.

The present study evaluated the effects of mothers' participation in an 8-week coparenting intervention program, Understanding Dad™, on mothers' awareness and attitudes regarding how their relationships with fathers influence paternal involvement with children, knowledge of healthy pro-relationship skills, and relationship self-efficacy. Thirty-four mothers were recruited from four sites to participate in a study that used a pretest/posttest one-group design. Over the course of this 8-week program, mothers demonstrated moderate to large gains in each of the outcome measures, after controlling for mothers' educational level. Moreover, there was one significant within-subjects interaction effect for time × location. That is, mothers made significantly greater gains in pro-relationship knowledge in one of the intervention sites. Implications for future research are discussed.

Longitudinal associations among fathers' perception of coparenting, partner relationship quality, and paternal stress during early childhood.

This study examined the longitudinal and concurrent associations among fathers' perceptions of partner relationship quality (happiness, conflict), coparenting (shared decision making, conflict), and paternal stress. The sample consisted of 6,100 children who lived with both biological parents at 24 and 48 months in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort data set. The results showed that there are significant and concurrent associations between fathers' perceptions of the coparenting relationship and paternal stress, and between partner relationship quality and paternal stress. There was also a positive direct longitudinal association between partner relationship conflict and paternal stress. However, we found only one longitudinal cross-system mediation effect: fathers' perception of coparenting conflict at 48 months mediated the association between partner relationship conflict at 24 months and paternal stress at 48 months. The family practice implications of these findings are discussed.

Longitudinal and reciprocal associations between coparenting conflict and father engagement.

The major goal of the present study was to examine the reciprocal and longitudinal associations between coparenting conflict and father engagement with children during the early childhood years. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey--Birth Cohort (N = 3600), the findings supported the hypothesis that father engagement at 9 months has a significant effect on coparenting conflict at 24 and 48 months, but there was limited support for the hypothesis that early coparenting conflict has an effect on later engagement. The direct and indirect findings also suggest that fathers' engagement with young children has different longitudinal effects on coparenting conflict depending on the type of activity in which fathers are engaged. Whereas fathers' physical care at 9 months was associated with increased levels of later coparenting conflict, fathers' cognitive stimulation at 9 months was associated with lower levels of later coparenting conflict. Implications for programs for fathers and families are discussed.

Coparenting and children's school readiness: a mediational model.

We examined the long-term direct and indirect links between coparenting (conflict, communication, and shared decision-making) and preschoolers' school readiness (math, literacy, and social skills). The study sample consisted of 5,650 children and their biological mothers and fathers who participated in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort. Using structural equation modeling and controlling for background characteristics, we found that our conceptual model of the pathways from coparenting to child outcomes is structurally the same for cohabiting and married families. Controlling for a host of background characteristics, we found that coparenting conflict and shared decision-making were negatively and positively, respectively, linked to children's academic and social skills and co-parental communication was indirectly linked to academic and social skills through maternal supportiveness. Coparenting conflict was also indirectly linked to children's social skills through maternal depressive symptoms. The overall findings suggest that for both cohabiting and married families, the context of conflicted coparenting may interfere with the development of children's social competencies and academic skills, whereas collaborative coparenting promotes children's school readiness because mothers are more responsive to their children's needs. These findings have implications for programs aimed at promoting positive family processes in cohabiting and married families.

Do late adolescent fathers have more depressive symptoms than older fathers?

Although fathers are increasingly a focus of attention in research, there is a dearth of research on depressive symptoms among fathers, especially young fathers with toddlers. This study used longitudinal data to examine what risk factors, including the age status of fathers (e.g., late adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood), may be associated with depressive symptoms of fathers when their children were 3 and 5 years of age. A subsample of families for which complete data were available on all variables was used in the analyses (n = 1,403). About 46% of study sample was African American, 27% White, 23% Hispanic, and 4% other race/ethnicity. Paternal depressive symptoms were measured using Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form (CIDI-SF). Late adolescent fatherhood was significantly associated with third-year paternal depressive symptoms but not with fifth-year depressive symptoms. Those who reported low social support were more likely to be depressed at both times. Fathers who did not work for regular pay were more likely to be depressed at the third-year follow-up, but not at the fifth-year follow-up. Parenting stress and being booked/charged with a crime were not associated with third-year paternal depressive symptoms, but were with fifth-year paternal depressive symptoms. This study emphasizes the importance of screening for depressive symptoms of fathers even before the birth of their child and monitoring and treating postpartum depressive symptoms, as first-year depressive symptoms was a significant predictor for third- and fifth-year depressive symptoms. Service providers should focus on the mental health of fathers as well as mothers to promote healthy environments for their children.