A brief review of recent discoveries in human anatomy.

In the last few years, a cluster of anatomical discoveries has been reported which overturned the long existing dogmas about the structure and function of human body. First to come was the discovery that established the existence of a lymphatic system pertaining to the central nervous system (CNS). CNS was believed to be anatomically immune privileged owing to the absence of any lymphatics and presence of the blood-brain barrier around it, but latest research has established beyond any reasonable doubt that true lymphatic channels carry immune cells in meninges thus challenging the existing theory. Studies also supported the presence of a 'Glymphatic system' (created by the perivascular spaces lined with the leptomeninges and a sheath of glial cells) in the CNS draining interstitial metabolic waste from CNS. The second discovery unraveled the previously unknown parts of the human mesentery in adult and established that it is a continuous entity all along the intra-abdominal gut tube against the previous notion that it is fragmented in the adult humans. A very recently reported third discovery demonstrated a previously unknown tissue component-'interstitium'-a networked collagen bound fluid-filled space existent in a number of human organs. All these structures bear considerable applied importance towards the pathogenesis, prognostic and diagnostic investigations and management of human diseases. This article attempts to present a brief review of all three remarkable discoveries and emphasizes their applied importance within the realm of medical sciences.

Diabetes Type 4: A Paradigm Shift in the Understanding of Glaucoma, the Brain Specific Diabetes and the Candidature of Insulin as a Therapeutic Agent.

In the present analysis, we aim at probing into many important mechanisms that serve to bridge conceptual gaps to fill up the mosaic of a picture revealing that glaucoma indeed is brain specific diabetes and more appropriately "Diabetes Type 4". Based on this conceptual substance, we weave a novel idea of insulin being a potential remedy for glaucoma. This analysis synthesizes upon the published literature on brain changes in glaucoma, possibility of isolated brain diabetes, insulin signaling glitches in glaucoma pathology, mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance in glaucomatous eyes, insulin mediated regulation of intraocular pressure and its dysregulation in mitochondrial dysfunction. We also look into the role of amyloidopathy and taupathy in glaucoma pathogenesis vis-à-vis insulin signaling. At every step, the discussion reveals that insulin and other allied moieties are a sure promise for glaucoma treatment and management. In this article, we aim at synthesizing a persuasive and all inclusive picture of glaucoma etiopathomechanism centered on "insulin-hypofunctionality" in the central nervous system (i.e. brain specific diabetes). We start with considering the possibility of neurodegenerative diabetes that exists independent of the peripheral diabetes. Once that condition is met, then a metabolic conglomeration of this brain specific diabetes is deliberated upon leading us to understand the development of retinal ganglion cell apoptosis, intraocular pressure elevation, optic cupping and mitochondrial dysfunction. All these are the hallmarks and sufficient conditions to satisfy the diagnostic criteria for glaucoma. Immediate application of this analysis points towards glaucoma therapy centered upon improving what we have termed insulin-hypofunctionality.