Understanding the Process of Family Cancer History Collection and Health Information Seeking.

PROBLEM ADDRESSED: To better understand the factors associated with family cancer history (FCH) information and cancer information seeking, we model the process an individual undergoes when assessing whether to gather FCH and seek cancer information and compare models by sociodemographics and family history of cancer. We used cross-sectional data from the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS 5, Cycle 2) and variables (e.g., emotion and self-efficacy) associated with the Theory of Motivated Information Management to assess the process of FCH gathering and information seeking. We completed path analysis to assess the process of FCH gathering and stratified path models. RESULTS: Those who felt they could lower their chances of getting cancer (emotion) were more confident in their ability to complete FCH on a medical form (self-efficacy; B = 0.11, p < .0001) and more likely to have discussed FCH with family members (B = 0.07, p < .0001). Those who were more confident in their ability to complete a summary of their family history on a medical form were more likely to have discussed FCH with family members (B = 0.34, p < .0001) and seek other health information (B = 0.24, p < .0001). Stratified models showed differences in this process by age, race/ethnicity, and family history of cancer. IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH AND PRACTICE: Tailoring outreach and education strategies to address differences in perceived ability to lower chances of getting cancer (emotion) and confidence in the ability to complete FCH (self-efficacy) could help encourage less engaged individuals to learn about their FCH and gather cancer information.

Cost-Effectiveness of Pharmacologic Treatment Options for Women With Endocrine-Refractory or Triple-Negative Metastatic Breast Cancer.

PURPOSE: Treatments for endocrine-refractory or triple-negative metastatic breast cancer (mBC) are modestly effective at prolonging life and improving quality of life but can be extremely expensive. Given these tradeoffs in quality of life and cost, the optimal choice of treatment sequencing is unclear. Cost-effectiveness analysis can explicitly quantify such tradeoffs, enabling more informed decision making. Our objective was to estimate the societal cost-effectiveness of different therapeutic alternatives in the first- to third-line sequences of single-agent chemotherapy regimens among patients with endocrine-refractory or triple-negative mBC. METHODS: Using three dynamic microsimulation models of 10,000 patients each, three cohorts were simulated, based upon prior chemotherapy exposure: (1) unexposed to either taxane or anthracycline, (2) taxane- and anthracycline-exposed, and (3) taxane-exposed/anthracycline-naive. We focused on the following single-agent chemotherapy regimens as reasonable and commonly used options in the first three lines of therapy for each cohort, based upon feedback from oncologists treating endocrine-refractory or triple-negative mBC: (1) for taxane- and anthracycline-unexposed patients, paclitaxel, capecitabine (CAPE), or pegylated liposomal doxorubicin; (2) for taxane- and anthracycline-exposed patients, Eribulin, CAPE, or carboplatin; and (3) for taxane-exposed/anthracycline-naive patients, pegylated liposomal doxorubicin, CAPE, or Eribulin. RESULTS: In each cohort, accumulated quality-adjusted life-years were similar between regimens, but total societal costs varied considerably. Sequences beginning first-line treatment with paclitaxel, carboplatin, and CAPE, respectively, for cohorts 1, 2, and 3, had lower costs and similar or slightly better outcomes compared with alternative options. CONCLUSION: In this setting where multiple single-agent chemotherapy options are recommended by clinical guidelines and share similar survival and adverse event trajectories, treatment sequencing approaches that minimize costs early may improve the value of care.

Projecting the Prevalence and Costs of Metastatic Breast Cancer From 2015 through 2030.

Background: This study projected the number of metastatic breast cancer (mBC) cases and costs (medical and productivity) attributable to mBC through 2030 among 3 age groups: younger (aged 18-44 years), midlife (aged 45-64 years), and older women (aged 65 years and older). Methods: We developed a stock/flow model in which women enter the mBC population at initial diagnosis (de novo stage IV) or through progression of an earlier-stage cancer. Women exit the mBC population through death. Input parameters by age and phase of treatment came from the US Census, Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results and peer-reviewed literature. Results: In 2030, we estimated there would be 246 194 prevalent cases of mBC, an increase of 54.8% from the 2015 estimate of 158 997. We estimated total costs (medical and productivity) of mBC across all age groups and phases of care were $63.4 billion (95% sensitivity range = $59.4-$67.4 billion) in 2015 and would increase to $152.4 billion (95% sensitivity range = $111.6-$220.4 billion) in 2030, an increase of 140%. Trends in estimated costs were higher for younger and midlife women than for older women. Conclusions: The cost of mBC could increase substantially in the coming decade, especially among younger and midlife women. Although accounting for trends in incidence, progression, and survival, our model did not attempt to forecast structural changes such as technological innovations in breast cancer treatment and health-care delivery reforms. These findings can motivate early detection activities, direct value-driven mBC treatment, and provide a useful baseline against which to measure the effect of prevention and treatment efforts.

Medical costs associated with metastatic breast cancer in younger, midlife, and older women.

PURPOSE: We estimated average medical costs due to metastatic breast cancer (mBC) among younger (aged 18-44), midlife (aged 45-64), and older women (aged 65 and older) by phase of care: initial, continuing, and terminal. METHODS: We used 2003-2014 North Carolina cancer registry data linked with administrative claims from public and private payers. We developed a claims-based algorithm to identify breast cancer patients who progressed to metastatic disease. We matched breast cancer patients (mBC and earlier stage) to non-cancer patients on age group, county of residence, and insurance plan. Outcomes were average monthly medical expenditures and expected medical expenditures by phase. We used regression to estimate excess costs attributed to mBC as the difference in mean payments between patients with mBC (N = 4806) and patients with each earlier-stage breast cancer (stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, and unknown stage; N = 21,772) and non-cancer controls (N = 109,631) by treatment phase and age group. RESULTS: Adjusted monthly costs for women with mBC were significantly higher than for women with earlier-stage breast cancer and non-cancer controls for all age groups and treatment phases except the initial treatment among women with stage 3 breast cancer at diagnosis. The largest expected total costs were for women aged 18-44 with mBC during the continuing phase ($209,961 95% Confidence Interval $165,736-254,186). CONCLUSIONS: We found substantial excess costs for mBC among younger women and during the continuing and terminal phases of survivorship. It is important to assess whether this care is high value for these women.

Estimation of Breast Cancer Incident Cases and Medical Care Costs Attributable to Alcohol Consumption Among Insured Women Aged <45 Years in the U.S.

INTRODUCTION: This study estimated the percentage of breast cancer cases, total number of incident cases, and total annual medical care costs attributable to alcohol consumption among insured younger women (aged 18-44 years) by type of insurance and stage at diagnosis. METHODS: The study used the 2012-2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, cancer incidence data from two national registry programs, and published relative risk measures to estimate the: (1) alcohol-attributable fraction of breast cancer cases among younger women by insurance type; (2) total number of breast cancer incident cases attributable to alcohol consumption by stage at diagnosis and insurance type among younger women; and (3) total annual medical care costs of treating breast cancer incident cases attributable to alcohol consumption among younger women. Analyses were conducted in 2016; costs were expressed in 2014 U.S. dollars. RESULTS: Among younger women enrolled in Medicaid, private insurance, and both groups, 8.7% (95% CI=7.4%, 10.0%), 13.8% (95% CI=13.3%, 14.4%), and 12.3% (95% CI=11.4%, 13.1%) of all breast cancer cases, respectively, were attributable to alcohol consumption. Localized stage was the largest proportion of estimated attributable incident cases. The estimated total number of breast cancer incident alcohol-attributable cases was 1,636 (95% CI=1,570, 1,703) and accounted for estimated total annual medical care costs of $148.4 million (95% CI=$140.6 million, $156.1 million). CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol-attributable breast cancer has estimated medical care costs of nearly $150 million per year. The current findings could be used to support evidence-based interventions to reduce alcohol consumption in younger women.

Getting Beyond Impressions: An Evaluation of Engagement with Breast Cancer-related Facebook Content.

BACKGROUND: Reaching young adults with health messages has been a documented challenge in public health. Public health researchers have initiated studies to assess how social media are changing health communication. In 2014, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) launched social media-based health education initiatives on Facebook to increase knowledge of breast health and breast cancer among women under age 45 and those at higher risk for developing the disease. The current study used digital analytics and metrics to describe the impact of these social media efforts on health communication. METHODS: Engagement rate was calculated by taking the average engagement rate for 574 posts published by the CDC Breast Cancer Facebook page in multiple categories, including CDC campaign specificity, content type, time of day, and year posted. Linear regression was used to model the effect of campaign content. RESULTS: Engagement rate (ER) was highest for content shared for the Know:BRCA campaign posts (ER=6.4), followed by the non-campaign related posts (ER=5.5), and the Bring Your Brave posts (ER=4.6). Overall engagement rate decreased from 2014-2016. Photos consistently produced the most significant engagement rate overall. CONCLUSIONS: We found that users were more likely to click, share, comment, or like the content of the post that had photos. These data suggest that that branded, visual content is more effective in facilitating engagement. These findings will be used to adjust both free and paid social media efforts for the CDC Breast Cancer Facebook page.

Public Health Action Model for Cancer Survivorship.

Long-term objectives associated with cancer survivors have been suggested by Healthy People 2020, including increasing the proportion of survivors living beyond 5 years after diagnosis and improving survivors' mental and physical health-related quality of life. Prior to reaching these objectives, several intermediate steps must be taken to improve the physical, social, emotional, and financial well-being of cancer survivors. Public health has a role in developing strategic, actionable, and measurable approaches to facilitate change at multiple levels to improve the lives of survivors and their families. The social ecological model has been used by the public health community as the foundation of multilevel intervention design and implementation, encouraging researchers and practitioners to explore methods that promote internal and external changes at the individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and policy levels. The survivorship community, including public health professionals, providers, policymakers, survivors, advocates, and caregivers, must work collaboratively to identify, develop, and implement interventions that benefit cancer survivors. The National Action Plan for Cancer Survivorship highlights public health domains and associated strategies that can be the impetus for collaboration between and among the levels in the social ecological model and are integral to improving survivor outcomes. This paper describes the Public Health Action Model for Cancer Survivorship, an integrative framework that combines the National Action Plan for Cancer Survivorship with the social ecological model to demonstrate how interaction among the various levels may promote better outcomes for survivors.

Evaluation of a Web-Based Program for African American Young Breast Cancer Survivors.

INTRODUCTION: Among women aged <45 years, African Americans have the highest breast cancer incidence rates of any ethnic/racial group and disproportionately higher rates of mortality. Young breast cancer survivors (YBCSs) may require psychosocial and reproductive health support when navigating diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up care. To address these needs, the Young Sisters Initiative: A Guide to a Better You! Program (YSI) was developed, implemented, and evaluated. The purpose of this study was to assess implementation and fidelity; identify barriers and facilitators to implementation; and explore audience access, use, and perceived value of the YSI. METHODS: A mixed-method, process evaluation of the YSI using interviews, an online screener, and post-use survey was conducted with data collected and analyzed from February through August 2013. Thematic analysis of qualitative data was conducted without qualitative data analysis software. Survey data were analyzed using PASW Statistics, version 18. RESULTS: YSI core elements were implemented as intended. A total of 1,442 people visited the YSI website; 93% of breast cancer survivors who visited the site (and consented to be in the study) were African American; 75% of post-use survey YBCS respondents were very or somewhat satisfied with the YSI; and 70% of YBCS respondents said the YSI content was somewhat or very useful. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest the value of using the Internet, including social media, to provide African-American YBCSs who are newly diagnosed, in treatment, and post-treatment with reproductive and psychosocial information and support. Further implementation and evaluation of programs addressing the needs of YBCSs are needed.

Health behaviors and quality of life among colorectal cancer survivors.

PURPOSE: To examine, at the population level, health behaviors, comorbidities, and health-related quality of life among colorectal cancer (CRC) survivors compared with other cancer survivors and persons without cancer. METHODS: We used data from the 2009 and 2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System cancer survivor modules. We calculated descriptive statistics, conducted chi-square tests for comparisons, and used multivariable logistic regression analysis to compare CRC survivors with other cancer survivors and persons without cancer. RESULTS: Of the 52,788 cancer survivors included in this analysis, 4001 reported being CRC survivors. When compared with other cancer survivors, CRC survivors reported higher percentages of obesity and lack of physical activity; however, they had lower levels of current smoking. Adjusted results show that CRC survivors were significantly more likely to report lack of physical activity, fair/poor health, and other chronic health conditions compared with persons without a cancer diagnosis. Conversely, CRC survivors reported lower levels of current smoking than persons without cancer. CONCLUSIONS: CRC survivors have a higher proportion of heath conditions and behaviors that may significantly increase their risks for recurrence or development of a second cancer. Targeted interventions to address these health issues should be considered.

The role of social support in posttreatment surveillance among African American survivors of colorectal cancer.

African Americans are less likely than other groups to receive appropriate surveillance after colorectal cancer (CRC) treatment. The objective of this study is to qualitatively explore the role of social support in post-CRC treatment surveillance and ultimately, inform interventions to promote surveillance in African American survivors of CRC. Interviews were conducted with 60 African American survivors of CRC recruited from the Cancer Care Outcomes Research and Surveillance (CanCORS) study and the Alabama Statewide Cancer Registry. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. Transcripts were reviewed and coded independently by the authors. The NVivo software package was used to facilitate coding and data management. Survivors were from 4 to 6 years post diagnosis, 57% female, 60% older than age 65 years, 57% from rural Alabama, 30% with stage 1, 32% with stage 2, and 38% with stage 3 disease. Material and emotional social support from family and one's faith community were cited as playing an important role in coping with the disease and posttreatment surveillance. Survivors who reported being adherent with posttreatment surveillance recommendations (according to stage of disease based on self-report of colonoscopy, computed tomography scans, and blood work) reported more religious material and non-material social support, and support from other survivors of CRC. In these African American survivors of CRC, support from family, other survivors of cancer, and the faith community was perceived as being important for adherence to posttreatment surveillance. Interventions to increase posttreatment surveillance in this population may be enhanced by including components that emphasize familial, other cancer survivor, and religious support.

Health and economic impact of breast cancer mortality in young women, 1970-2008.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is the second-leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women aged <50 years. Studies on the effects of breast cancer mortality among young women are limited. PURPOSE: To assess trends in breast cancer mortality rates among women aged 20-49 years, estimate years of potential life lost (YPLL), and the value of productivity losses due to premature mortality. METHODS: Age-adjusted rates and rate ratios (RRs) were calculated using 1970-2008 U.S. mortality data. Breast cancer mortality rates over time were assessed using Joinpoint regression modeling. YPLL was calculated using number of cancer deaths and the remaining life expectancy at the age of death. Value of productivity losses was estimated using the number of deaths and the present value of future lifetime earnings. RESULTS: From 1970 to 2008, the age-adjusted breast cancer mortality rate among young women was 12.02/100,000. Rates were higher in the Northeast (RR=1.03, 95% CI, 1.02-1.04). The annual decline in breast cancer mortality rates among blacks was smaller (-0.68%) compared with whites (-2.02%). The total number of deaths associated with breast cancer was 225,866, which accounted for an estimated 7.98 million YPLL. The estimated total productivity loss in 2008 was $5.49 billion and individual lifetime lost earnings were $1.10 million. CONCLUSIONS: Considering the effect of breast cancer on women of working age and the disproportionate impact on black women, more age-appropriate interventions with multiple strategies are needed to help reduce these substantial health and economic burdens, improve survival, and in turn reduce productivity costs associated with premature death.

Assessment of the status of a National Action Plan for Cancer Survivorship in the USA.

PURPOSE: There are currently more than 12 million cancer survivors in the USA. Survivors face many issues related to cancer and treatment that are outside the purview of the clinical care system. Therefore, understanding and providing for the evolving needs of cancer survivors offers challenges and opportunities for the public health system. In 2004, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Lance Armstrong Foundation, now the Livestrong Foundation, partnered with national cancer survivorship organizations to develop the National Action Plan for Cancer Survivorship (NAPCS). This plan outlines public health strategies to address the needs of cancer survivors. To date, no assessment of NAPCS strategies and their alignment with domestic cancer survivorship activities has been conducted. METHODS: The activities of five national organizations with organized public health agendas about cancer survivorship were assessed qualitatively during 2003-2007. Using the NAPCS as an organizing framework, interviews were conducted with key informants from all participating organizations. Interview responses were supplemented with relevant materials from informants and reviews of the organizations' websites. RESULTS: Strategies associated with surveillance and applied research; communication, education, and training; and programs, policy, and infrastructure represent a large amount of the organizational efforts. However, there are gaps in research on preventive interventions, evaluation of implemented activities, and translation. CONCLUSIONS: Numerous NAPCS strategies have been implemented. Future efforts of national cancer survivorship organizations should include rigorous evaluation of implemented activities, increased translation of research to practice, and assessment of dissemination efforts. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: The results of this descriptive assessment provide cancer survivors, cancer survivorship organizations, researchers, providers, and policy makers with initial information about cancer survivorship public health efforts in the USA. Additionally, results suggest areas in need of further attention and next steps in advancing the national cancer survivorship public health agenda.

Persistent cigarette smoking and other tobacco use after a tobacco-related cancer diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION: People who continue to smoke after a cancer diagnosis have an increased risk for recurrences or development of new malignancies. These risks may be even higher among tobacco-related cancer survivors (TRCS). We describe tobacco use behaviors among TRCS, other cancer survivors, and people without a history of cancer. METHODS: We used 2009 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data to describe demographic characteristics, smoking history, current smoking prevalence, and smokeless tobacco use among TRCS, other cancer survivors, and people without a history of cancer (cigarette smoking and smokeless tobacco use were calculated after adjusting for age, sex, race, and insurance status). Tobacco-related cancers were defined as lung/bronchial, pharyngeal, laryngeal, esophageal, stomach, pancreatic, kidney/renal, urinary bladder, cervical, and acute myeloid leukemia. RESULTS: A total of 20 % of all cancer survivors were TRCS. TRCS were primarily female (68 %) and white (78 %). Smoking prevalence was higher among TRCS (27 %) compared with other cancer survivors (16 %) and respondents without a history of cancer (18 %). Smokeless tobacco use was higher among respondents without a history of cancer (4 %) compared with TRCS (3 %) and other cancer survivors (3 %). CONCLUSIONS: The self-reported smoking prevalence among TRCS is higher than among other cancer survivors and people without a history of cancer. Targeted smoking prevention and cessation interventions are needed for cancer survivors, especially those diagnosed with a tobacco-related cancer. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: We recommend all cancer survivors be made aware of the health risks associated with smoking after a cancer diagnosis, and smoking cessation services be offered to those who currently smoke. We provide the first population-based report on demographic characteristics and tobacco use behaviors among self-reported tobacco-related cancer survivors.

Cervical cancer survivors at increased risk of subsequent tobacco-related malignancies, United States 1992-2008.

PURPOSE: Persistent smoking among cancer survivors may increase their risk of subsequent malignancies, including tobacco-related malignancies. Despite these risks, nearly 40 % of women diagnosed with cervical cancer continue to smoke after diagnosis. This study describes the relative risk of developing any subsequent and tobacco-related malignancy among cervical cancer survivors. METHODS: We examined data from the year 1992 to 2008 in 13 Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results registries. We calculated the standardized incidence ratio (SIR) and 95 % confidence limits (CLs) for all subsequent and tobacco-related malignancies among cervical cancer survivors. Tobacco-related malignancies were defined according to the 2004 Surgeon General's Report on the Health Consequences of Smoking. For comparison with cervical cancer survivors, SIRs for subsequent malignancies were also calculated for female survivors of breast or colorectal cancers. RESULTS: The SIR of developing a subsequent tobacco-related malignancy was higher among cervical cancer survivors (SIR = 2.2, 95 % CL = 2.0-2.4). Female breast (SIR = 1.1, 95 % CL = 1.0-1.1) and colorectal cancer survivors (1.1, 1.1-1.2) also had an elevated risk. The increased risk of a subsequent tobacco-related malignancy among cervical cancer survivors was greatest in the first 5 years after the initial diagnosis and decreased as time since diagnosis elapsed. CONCLUSION: Women with cervical cancer have a two-fold increased risk of subsequent tobacco-related malignancies, compared with breast and colorectal cancer survivors. In an effort to decrease their risk of subsequent tobacco-related malignancies, cancer survivors should be targeted for tobacco prevention and cessation services. Special attention should be given to cervical cancer survivors whose risk is almost twice that of breast or colorectal cancer survivors.

Surveillance of demographic characteristics and health behaviors among adult cancer survivors--Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, United States, 2009.

PROBLEM/CONDITION: Approximately 12 million people are living with cancer in the United States. Limited information is available on national and state assessments of health behaviors among cancer survivors. Using data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), this report provides a descriptive state-level assessment of demographic characteristics and health behaviors among cancer survivors aged ≥18 years. REPORTING PERIOD COVERED: 2009 DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: BRFSS is an ongoing, state-based, random-digit-dialed telephone survey of the noninstitutionalized U.S. population aged ≥18 years. BRFSS collects information on health risk behaviors and use of preventive health services related to leading causes of death and morbidity. In 2009, BRFSS added questions about previous cancer diagnoses to the core module. The 2009 BRFSS also included an optional cancer survivorship module that assessed cancer treatment history and health insurance coverage for cancer survivors. In 2009, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands administered the core cancer survivorship questions, and 10 states administered the optional supplemental cancer survivorship module. Five states added questions on mammography and Papanicolaou (Pap) test use, eight states included questions on colorectal screening, and five states included questions on prostate cancer screening. RESULTS: An estimated 7.2% of the U.S. general population aged ≥18 years reported having received a previous cancer diagnosis (excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer). A total of 78.8% of cancer survivors were aged ≥50 years, and 39.2% had received a diagnosis of cancer >10 years previously. A total of 57.8% reported receiving an influenza vaccination during the previous year, and 48.3% reported ever receiving a pneumococcal vaccination. At the time of the interview, 6.8% of cancer survivors had no health insurance, and 12% had been denied health insurance, life insurance, or both because of their cancer diagnosis. The prevalence of cardiovascular disease was higher among male cancer survivors (23.4%) than female cancer survivors (14.3%), as was the prevalence of diabetes (19.6% and 14.7%, respectively). Overall, approximately 15.1% of cancer survivors were current cigarette smokers, 27.5% were obese, and 31.5% had not engaged in any leisure-time physical activity during the past 30 days. Demographic characteristics and health behaviors among cancer survivors varied substantially by state. INTERPRETATION: Health behaviors and preventive health care practices among cancer survivors vary by state and demographic characteristics. A large proportion of cancer survivors have comorbid conditions, currently smoke, do not participate in any leisure-time physical activity, and are obese. In addition, many are not receiving recommended preventive care, including cancer screening and influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations. PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: Health-care providers and patients should be aware of the importance of preventive care, smoking cessation, regular physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight for cancer survivors. The findings in this report can help public health practitioners, researchers, and comprehensive cancer control programs evaluate the effectiveness of program activities for cancer survivors, assess the needs of cancer survivors at the state level, and allocate appropriate resources to address those needs.

Racial and regional disparities in lung cancer incidence.

BACKGROUND: Lung cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States (US). We examined data from 2004 to 2006 for lung cancer incidence rates by demographics, including race and geographic region, to identify potential health disparities. METHODS: Data from cancer registries affiliated with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR), and the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program (SEER) were used for this study; representing 100% of the US population. Age-adjusted incidence rates and 95% confidence intervals for demographic (age, sex, race, ethnicity, and US Census region), and tumor (stage, grade, and histology) characteristics were calculated. RESULTS: During 2004 to 2006, 623,388 people (overall rate of 68.9 per 100,000) were diagnosed with lung cancer in the US. Lung cancer incidence rates were highest among men (86.2), Blacks (73.0), persons aged 70 to 79 years (431.1), and those living in the South (74.7). Among Whites, the highest lung cancer incidence rate was in the South (75.6); the highest rates among Blacks (88.9) and American Indians/Alaska Natives (65.4) in the Midwest, Asians/Pacific Islanders in the West (40.0), and Hispanics in the Northeast (40.3). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings of racial, ethnic, and regional disparities in lung cancer incidence suggest a need for the development and implementation of more effective culturally specific preventive and treatment strategies that will ultimately reduce the disproportionate burden of lung cancer in the US.

Use of 2001-2002 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data to characterize cancer survivors in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVE: We used Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data to examine demographic characteristics, health status, quality of life, and preventive health behaviors among adult cancer survivors in North Carolina. METHODS: We analyzed responses to state-added questions on cancer survivorship and to standard BRFSS questions concerning health status, quality of life, and health behaviors, including access of preventive services associated with cancer prevention and early detection, from the 2001 and 2002 North Carolina BRFSS. RESULTS: Cancer survivors were more likely than individuals with no self-reported history of cancer to be women (62.7% vs 51.3%), white (80.8% vs 70.3%), aged 65 years or older (48.7% vs 13.8%), and up to date with colorectal cancer screening (66.4% vs 52.4%); as likely to be current smokers (28.0% vs 26.2%); and more likely to report poor or fair health status (28.2% vs 17.2%). Cancer survivors reported lower quality of life, measured as the number of physically and mentally unhealthy days in the previous 30 days. LIMITATIONS: This was a cross-sectional survey that relied on self-reported history of cancer, healthy behaviors, and use of preventive services. CONCLUSIONS: Data from a statewide, population-based survey can be used to assess unmet needs of cancer survivors. Comprehensive cancer-control programs should be able to design interventions and monitor progress of state cancer-survivorship goals.

Health behaviors and quality of life of cancer survivors in Massachusetts, 2006: data use for comprehensive cancer control.

INTRODUCTION: Nearly 12 million cancer survivors are living in the United States. Few state-based studies have examined the health status and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of this growing population. The objective of this study was to use Massachusetts Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data to describe cancer survivors' demographics, health behaviors, quality of life, use of preventive care services, and influenza vaccination rates. METHODS: The demographic characteristics of cancer survivors and respondents without cancer were estimated on the basis of responses to questions in the 2006 Massachusetts BRFSS. We used multivariate logistic regression to compare health behaviors, comorbidities, quality of life, and cancer screening and influenza vaccination rates for cancer survivors compared with respondents who did not have cancer. RESULTS: Cancer survivors and respondents who did not have cancer had similar rates of health behavioral risk factors including smoking, obesity, and physical activity. Rates of chronic disease (eg, heart disease, asthma) and disability were higher among cancer survivors. Cancer survivors reported higher rates of influenza vaccination and breast, colorectal, and cervical cancer screening than did respondents who did not have cancer. Survivors' self-reported health status and HRQOL (physical and mental health) improved as length of survivorship increased. CONCLUSION: This state-based survey allowed Massachusetts to assess health-related issues for resident cancer survivors. These findings will help state-based public health planners develop interventions to address the long-term physical and psychosocial consequences of cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Addressing cancer survivorship through public health: an update from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Currently, there are nearly 12 million cancer survivors living in the United States. They face a myriad of personal and health issues related to their cancer treatment. Increased recognition of cancer survivorship as a distinct and important phase that follows the diagnosis and treatment of cancer has contributed to the development of public health-related strategies and plans to address those strategies. CDC's Division of Cancer Prevention and Control (DCPC) uses an interdisciplinary public health approach to address the needs of cancer survivors through applied research, public health surveillance and data collection, education, and health promotion, especially among underserved populations that may be at risk for health disparities. Our surveillance activities contribute to population-based descriptions of the health and treatment experiences of cancer survivors in the United States. These data inform applied research activities as well as provide baseline data on cancer survivors for local comprehensive cancer control programs. The knowledge gained by our research efforts informs the development of interventions, awareness and education campaigns, and other outreach activities targeting cancer survivors and those who care for and support them. Our partnerships with national organizations, state health agencies, and other key groups are essential in the development, implementation, and promotion of effective cancer control practices related to cancer survivorship. This article provides an overview of the cancer survivorship activities currently being implemented by DCPC. We highlight several public health surveillance, research, and programmatic outreach and partnership activities currently underway.

Prayer and self-reported health among cancer survivors in the United States, National Health Interview Survey, 2002.

OBJECTIVES: At least 10.8 million living Americans have been diagnosed with cancer, and about 1.5 million new cancer cases are expected to be diagnosed in 2008. The purpose of this study was to examine prayer for health and self-reported health among a sample of men and women with a personal history of cancer. METHODS: We used data from the 2002 National Health Interview Survey, which collected information on complementary and alternative medicine practices. RESULTS: Among 2262 men and women with a history of cancer, 68.5% reported having prayed for their own health and 72% reported good or better health status. Among cancer survivors, praying for one's own health was associated with several sociodemographic variables including being female, non-Hispanic black, and married. Compared to persons with a history of skin cancer, persons with a history of breast cancer, colorectal cancer, a cancer with a short survival period (e.g., pancreatic cancer), or other cancers were more likely to pray for their health. Persons who reported good or better health were more likely to be female, younger, have higher levels of education and income, and have no history of additional chronic disease. Overall, praying for one's own health was inversely associated with good or better health status. CONCLUSIONS: Data from this nationally representative sample indicate that prayer for health is commonly used among people with a history of cancer and that use of prayer varies by cancer site. The findings should add to the current body of literature that debates issues around spirituality, decision-making about treatment, and physician care.