Gait analysis patterns and rehabilitative interventions to improve gait in persons with hereditary spastic paraplegia: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a group of inheritance diseases resulting in gait abnormalities, which may be detected using instrumented gait analysis. The aim of this systematic review was 2-fold: to identify specific gait analysis patterns and interventions improving gait in HSP subjects. Methods: A systematic review was conducted in PubMed, Cochrane Library, REHABDATA, and PEDro databases, in accordance with reporting guidelines of PRISMA statement and Cochrane's recommendation. The review protocol was recorded on the PROSPERO register. Patients with pure and complicated HSP of any age were included. All types of studies were included. Risk of bias, quality assessment, and meta-analysis were performed. Results: Forty-two studies were included: 19 were related to gait analysis patterns, and 24 were intervention studies. The latter ones were limited to adults. HSP gait patterns were similar to cerebral palsy in younger subjects and stroke in adults. Knee hyperextension, reduced range of motion at knee, ankle, and hip, reduced foot lift, and increased rapid trunk and arm movements were reported. Botulinum injections reduced spasticity but uncovered weakness and improved gait velocity at follow-up. Weak evidence supported intrathecal baclofen, active intensive physical therapy (i.e., robot-assisted gait training, functional exercises, and hydrotherapy), and functional electrical stimulation. Some improvements but adverse events were reported after transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation, and spinal cord stimulation implant. Conclusion: Knee hyperextension, non-sagittal pelvic movements, and reduced ROM at the knee, ankle, and hip represent the most peculiar patterns in HSP, compared to diplegic cerebral palsy and stroke. Botulinum improved comfortable gait velocity after 2 months. Nonetheless, interventions reducing spasticity might result in ineffective functional outcomes unveiling weakness. Intensive active physical therapy and FES might improve gait velocity in the very short term.

Early recurrence in paroxysmal versus sustained atrial fibrillation in patients with acute ischaemic stroke.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between different patterns of atrial fibrillation and early recurrence after an acute ischaemic stroke is unclear. PURPOSE: In a prospective cohort study, we evaluated the rates of early ischaemic recurrence after an acute ischaemic stroke in patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or sustained atrial fibrillation which included persistent and permanent atrial fibrillation. METHODS: In patients with acute ischaemic stroke, atrial fibrillation was categorised as paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or sustained atrial fibrillation. Ischaemic recurrences were the composite of ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack and symptomatic systemic embolism occurring within 90 days from acute index stroke. RESULTS: A total of 2150 patients (1155 females, 53.7%) were enrolled: 930 (43.3%) had paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and 1220 (56.7%) sustained atrial fibrillation. During the 90-day follow-up, 111 ischaemic recurrences were observed in 107 patients: 31 in patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (3.3%) and 76 with sustained atrial fibrillation (6.2%) (hazard ratio (HR) 1.86 (95% CI 1.24-2.81)). Patients with sustained atrial fibrillation were on average older, more likely to have diabetes mellitus, hypertension, history of stroke/ transient ischaemic attack, congestive heart failure, atrial enlargement, high baseline NIHSS-score and implanted pacemaker. After adjustment by Cox proportional hazard model, sustained atrial fibrillation was not associated with early ischaemic recurrences (adjusted HR 1.23 (95% CI 0.74-2.04)). CONCLUSIONS: After acute ischaemic stroke, patients with sustained atrial fibrillation had a higher rate of early ischaemic recurrence than patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. After adjustment for relevant risk factors, sustained atrial fibrillation was not associated with a significantly higher risk of recurrence, thus suggesting that the risk profile associated with atrial fibrillation, rather than its pattern, is determinant for recurrence.

Early Recurrence and Major Bleeding in Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke and Atrial Fibrillation Treated With Non-Vitamin-K Oral Anticoagulants (RAF-NOACs) Study.

BACKGROUND: The optimal timing to administer non-vitamin K oral anticoagulants (NOACs) in patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation is unclear. This prospective observational multicenter study evaluated the rates of early recurrence and major bleeding (within 90 days) and their timing in patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation who received NOACs for secondary prevention. METHODS AND RESULTS: Recurrence was defined as the composite of ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attack, and symptomatic systemic embolism, and major bleeding was defined as symptomatic cerebral and major extracranial bleeding. For the analysis, 1127 patients were eligible: 381 (33.8%) were treated with dabigatran, 366 (32.5%) with rivaroxaban, and 380 (33.7%) with apixaban. Patients who received dabigatran were younger and had lower admission National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score and less commonly had a CHA2DS2-VASc score >4 and less reduced renal function. Thirty-two patients (2.8%) had early recurrence, and 27 (2.4%) had major bleeding. The rates of early recurrence and major bleeding were, respectively, 1.8% and 0.5% in patients receiving dabigatran, 1.6% and 2.5% in those receiving rivaroxaban, and 4.0% and 2.9% in those receiving apixaban. Patients who initiated NOACs within 2 days after acute stroke had a composite rate of recurrence and major bleeding of 12.4%; composite rates were 2.1% for those who initiated NOACs between 3 and 14 days and 9.1% for those who initiated >14 days after acute stroke. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation, treatment with NOACs was associated with a combined 5% rate of ischemic embolic recurrence and severe bleeding within 90 days.

Prediction of Early Recurrent Thromboembolic Event and Major Bleeding in Patients With Acute Stroke and Atrial Fibrillation by a Risk Stratification Schema: The ALESSA Score Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSES: This study was designed to derive and validate a score to predict early ischemic events and major bleedings after an acute ischemic stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation. METHODS: The derivation cohort consisted of 854 patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation included in prospective series between January 2012 and March 2014. Older age (hazard ratio 1.06 for each additional year; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-1.11) and severe atrial enlargement (hazard ratio, 2.05; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-2.87) were predictors for ischemic outcome events (stroke, transient ischemic attack, and systemic embolism) at 90 days from acute stroke. Small lesions (≤1.5 cm) were inversely correlated with both major bleeding (hazard ratio, 0.39; P=0.03) and ischemic outcome events (hazard ratio, 0.55; 95% confidence interval, 0.30-1.00). We assigned to age ≥80 years 2 points and between 70 and 79 years 1 point; ischemic index lesion >1.5 cm, 1 point; severe atrial enlargement, 1 point (ALESSA score). A logistic regression with the receiver-operating characteristic graph procedure (C statistic) showed an area under the curve of 0.697 (0.632-0.763; P=0.0001) for ischemic outcome events and 0.585 (0.493-0.678; P=0.10) for major bleedings. RESULTS: The validation cohort consisted of 994 patients included in prospective series between April 2014 and June 2016. Logistic regression with the receiver-operating characteristic graph procedure showed an area under the curve of 0.646 (0.529-0.763; P=0.009) for ischemic outcome events and 0.407 (0.275-0.540; P=0.14) for hemorrhagic outcome events. CONCLUSIONS: In acute stroke patients with atrial fibrillation, high ALESSA scores were associated with a high risk of ischemic events but not of major bleedings.

Prestroke CHA2DS2-VASc Score and Severity of Acute Stroke in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: Findings from RAF Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate for a possible association between both prestroke CHA2DS2-VASc score and the severity of stroke at presentation, as well as disability and mortality at 90 days, in patients with acute stroke and atrial fibrillation (AF). METHODS: This prospective study enrolled consecutive patients with acute ischemic stroke, AF, and assessment of prestroke CHA2DS2-VASc score. Severity of stroke was assessed on admission using the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score (severe stroke: NIHSS ≥10). Disability and mortality at 90 days were assessed by the modified Rankin Scale (mRS <3 or ≥3). Multiple logistic regression was used to correlate prestroke CHA2DS2-VASc and severity of stroke, as well as disability and mortality at 90 days. RESULTS: Of the 1020 patients included in the analysis, 606 patients had an admission NIHSS score lower and 414 patients higher than 10. At 90 days, 510 patients had mRS ≥3. A linear correlation was found between the prestroke CHA2DS2-VASc score and severity of stroke (P = .001). On multivariate analysis, CHA2DS2-VASc score correlated with severity of stroke (P = .041) and adverse functional outcome (mRS ≥3) (P = .001). A logistic regression with the receiver operating characteristic graph procedure (C-statistics) evidenced an area under the curve of .60 (P = .0001) for severe stroke. Furthermore, a correlation was found between prestroke CHA2DS2-VASc score and lesion size. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with AF, in addition to the risk of stroke, a high CHA2DS2-VASc score was independently associated with both stroke severity at onset and disability and mortality at 90 days.

Sex-related differences in risk factors, type of treatment received and outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation and acute stroke: Results from the RAF-study (Early Recurrence and Cerebral Bleeding in Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke and Atrial Fibrillation).

INTRODUCTION: Atrial fibrillation is an independent risk factor of thromboembolism. Women with atrial fibrillation are at a higher overall risk for stroke compared to men with atrial fibrillation. The aim of this study was to evaluate for sex differences in patients with acute stroke and atrial fibrillation, regarding risk factors, treatments received and outcomes. METHODS: Data were analyzed from the "Recurrence and Cerebral Bleeding in Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke and Atrial Fibrillation" (RAF-study), a prospective, multicenter, international study including only patients with acute stroke and atrial fibrillation. Patients were followed up for 90 days. Disability was measured by the modified Rankin Scale (0-2 favorable outcome, 3-6 unfavorable outcome). RESULTS: Of the 1029 patients enrolled, 561 were women (54.5%) (p < 0.001) and younger (p < 0.001) compared to men. In patients with known atrial fibrillation, women were less likely to receive oral anticoagulants before index stroke (p = 0.026) and were less likely to receive anticoagulants after stroke (71.3% versus 78.4%, p = 0.01). There was no observed sex difference regarding the time of starting anticoagulant therapy between the two groups (6.4 ± 11.7 days for men versus 6.5 ± 12.4 days for women, p = 0.902). Men presented with more severe strokes at onset (mean NIHSS 9.2 ± 6.9 versus 8.1 ± 7.5, p < 0.001). Within 90 days, 46 (8.2%) recurrent ischemic events (stroke/TIA/systemic embolism) and 19 (3.4%) symptomatic cerebral bleedings were found in women compared to 30 (6.4%) and 18 (3.8%) in men (p = 0.28 and p = 0.74). At 90 days, 57.7% of women were disabled or deceased, compared to 41.1% of the men (p < 0.001). Multivariate analysis did not confirm this significance. CONCLUSIONS: Women with atrial fibrillation were less likely to receive oral anticoagulants prior to and after stroke compared to men with atrial fibrillation, and when stroke occurred, regardless of the fact that in our study women were younger and with less severe stroke, outcomes did not differ between the sexes.

Prognostic value of trans-thoracic echocardiography in patients with acute stroke and atrial fibrillation: findings from the RAF study.

Anticoagulant therapy is recommended for the secondary prevention of stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). T he identification of patients at high risk for early recurrence, which are potential candidates to prompt anticoagulation, is crucial to justify the risk of bleeding associated with early anticoagulant treatment. The aim of this study was to evaluate in patients with acute ischemic stroke and AF the association between findings at trans-thoracic echocardiography (TTE) and 90 days recurrence. In consecutive patients with acute ischemic stroke and AF, TTE was performed within 7 days from hospital admission. Study outcomes were recurrent ischemic cerebrovascular events (stroke or TIA) and systemic embolism. 854 patients (mean age 76.3 ± 9.5 years) underwent a TTE evaluation; 63 patients (7.4%) had at least a study outcome event. Left atrial thrombosis was present in 11 patients (1.3%) among whom 1 had recurrent ischemic event. Left atrial enlargement was present in 548 patients (64.2%) among whom 51 (9.3%) had recurrent ischemic events. The recurrence rate in the 197 patients with severe left atrial enlargement was 11.7%. On multivariate analysis, the presence of atrial enlargement (OR 2.13; 95% CI 1.06-4.29, p = 0.033) and CHA2DS2-VASc score (OR 1.22; 95% CI 1.04-1.45, p = 0.018, for each point increase) were correlated with ischemic recurrences. In patients with AF-associated acute stroke, left atrial enlargement is an independent marker of recurrent stroke and systemic embolism. The risk of recurrence is accounted for by severe atrial enlargement. TTE-detected left atrial thrombosis is relatively uncommon.

Early Recurrence and Cerebral Bleeding in Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke and Atrial Fibrillation: Effect of Anticoagulation and Its Timing: The RAF Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The best time for administering anticoagulation therapy in acute cardioembolic stroke remains unclear. This prospective cohort study of patients with acute stroke and atrial fibrillation, evaluated (1) the risk of recurrent ischemic event and severe bleeding; (2) the risk factors for recurrence and bleeding; and (3) the risks of recurrence and bleeding associated with anticoagulant therapy and its starting time after the acute stroke. METHODS: The primary outcome of this multicenter study was the composite of stroke, transient ischemic attack, symptomatic systemic embolism, symptomatic cerebral bleeding and major extracranial bleeding within 90 days from acute stroke. RESULTS: Of the 1029 patients enrolled, 123 had 128 events (12.6%): 77 (7.6%) ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack or systemic embolism, 37 (3.6%) symptomatic cerebral bleeding, and 14 (1.4%) major extracranial bleeding. At 90 days, 50% of the patients were either deceased or disabled (modified Rankin score ≥3), and 10.9% were deceased. High CHA2DS2-VASc score, high National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, large ischemic lesion and type of anticoagulant were predictive factors for primary study outcome. At adjusted Cox regression analysis, initiating anticoagulants 4 to 14 days from stroke onset was associated with a significant reduction in primary study outcome, compared with initiating treatment before 4 or after 14 days: hazard ratio 0.53 (95% confidence interval 0.30-0.93). About 7% of the patients treated with oral anticoagulants alone had an outcome event compared with 16.8% and 12.3% of the patients treated with low molecular weight heparins alone or followed by oral anticoagulants, respectively (P=0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Acute stroke in atrial fibrillation patients is associated with high rates of ischemic recurrence and major bleeding at 90 days. This study has observed that high CHA2DS2-VASc score, high National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, large ischemic lesions, and type of anticoagulant administered each independently led to a greater risk of recurrence and bleedings. Also, data showed that the best time for initiating anticoagulation treatment for secondary stroke prevention is 4 to 14 days from stroke onset. Moreover, patients treated with oral anticoagulants alone had better outcomes compared with patients treated with low molecular weight heparins alone or before oral anticoagulants.