Family arrangements, identity verification, and happiness.

We study how the family structural arrangements individuals inhabit, the cultural meanings that accompany these structures, and individuals' experiences of identity verification within these structures are related to their general happiness. We use data (N = 1304) from the 2014 General Social Survey Identity Module to study the normative and non-normative family arrangements in which individuals reside, their experience of verification of the parent/non-parent identity, and their happiness. We find that parent/non-parent identity verification is positively associated with happiness for normative family arrangements but not non-normative family arrangements. We discuss how social structural arrangements and a culture that supports them may assist the identity verifying outcome of happiness, while structural arrangements and a culture that is not as supportive of certain family forms may undermine the identity verifying outcome of happiness. The findings provide insights into how social structure and culture at the macro level coalesce with the identity verification process at the micro level in affecting the emotional tenor of people's lives.

The fairness identity and the emergence of inequality.

Social exchange theories explain how differences in structural power can generate inequalities in exchange networks. We argue here that even in the absence of structural power differences, inequality can emerge out of the identity process. We posit that when structurally equivalent actors are uncertain about the resource levels available for distribution, different levels of the fairness identity and responses to identity non-verification will influence how they negotiate for resources. Results from an experiment that varies the fairness identity level and the identity verification of actors in two different equal power exchange networks confirm this. Absent structural power differences, the level of the fairness identity, identity non-verification, and structure of the network mutually influence the distribution of resources such that some dyads earn as much as two and a half times more than others. We discuss our findings as they pertain to unearthing the processes by which group inequalities arise and persist.

The effects of race/ethnicity and racial/ethnic identification on general trust.

General trust in others can facilitate social cooperation and reduce uncertainty on a personal level. However, those from the dominant group in society are more likely to trust than those from minority groups. We examine the gap in trust for whites compared to blacks and Hispanics in the U.S., with special attention to how strongly individuals identify with their racial/ethnic group, which may help restore trust for some when it is lacking. Using the 2014 GSS Identity Module, we find, as have others, that whites show higher trust than blacks and Hispanics, but when we examine people's identification with their racial/ethnic group, whites show lower trust than blacks and Hispanics. A strong racial/ethnic identification among the majority (whites) is associated with group threat and reduced trust. We discuss how identification with one's racial/ethnic group appears to have different effects depending on whether one is of a minority or majority status.