Aerobic physical training reduces severe asthma phenotype involving kinins pathway.

INTRODUCTION: Aerobic physical training (APT) reduces eosinophilic airway inflammation, but its effects and mechanisms in severe asthma remain unknown. METHODS: An in vitro study employing key cells involved in the pathogenesis of severe asthma, such as freshly isolated human eosinophils, neutrophils, and bronchial epithelial cell lineage (BEAS-2B) and lung fibroblasts (MRC-5 cells), was conducted. Additionally, an in vivo study using male C57Bl/6 mice, including Control (Co; n = 10), Trained (Exe; n = 10), house dust mite (HDM; n = 10), and HDM + Trained (HDM + Exe; n = 10) groups, was carried out, with APT performed at moderate intensity, 5x/week, for 4 weeks. RESULTS: HDM and bradykinin, either alone or in combination, induced hyperactivation in human neutrophils, eosinophils, BEAS-2B, and MRC-5 cells. In contrast, IL-10, the primary anti-inflammatory molecule released during APT, inhibited these inflammatory effects, as evidenced by the suppression of numerous cytokines and reduced mRNA expression of the B1 receptor and ACE-2. The in vivo study demonstrated that APT decreased bronchoalveolar lavage levels of bradykinin, IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-5, IL-17, IL-33, TNF-α, and IL-13, while increasing levels of IL-10, klotho, and IL-1RA. APT reduced the accumulation of polymorphonuclear cells, lymphocytes, and macrophages in the peribronchial space, as well as collagen fiber accumulation, epithelial thickness, and mucus accumulation. Furthermore, APT lowered the expression of the B1 receptor and ACE-2 in lung tissue and reduced bradykinin levels in the lung tissue homogenate compared to the HDM group. It also improved airway resistance, tissue resistance, and tissue damping. On a systemic level, APT reduced total leukocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes in the blood, as well as plasma levels of IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-5, IL-17, TNF-α, and IL-33, while elevating the levels of IL-10 and IL-1RA. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that APT inhibits the severe asthma phenotype by targeting kinin signaling.

Development of a Prognostic Model for Early Breast Cancer Integrating Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio and Clinical-Pathological Characteristics.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer-related inflammation is critical in tumorigenesis, cancer progression, and patient prognosis. Several inflammatory markers derived from peripheral blood cells count, such as the neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), monocyte-lymphocyte ratio (MLR), and systemic immune-inflammation index (SII) are considered as prognostic markers in several types of malignancy. METHODS: We investigate and validate a prognostic model in early patients with breast cancer to predict disease-free survival (DFS) based on readily available baseline clinicopathological prognostic factors and preoperative peripheral blood-derived indexes. RESULTS: We analyzed a training cohort of 710 patients and 2 external validation cohorts of 980 and 157 patients with breast cancer, respectively, with different demographic origins. An elevated preoperative NLR is a better DFS predictor than others scores. The prognostic model generated in this study was able to classify patients into 3 groups with different risks of relapse based on ECOG-PS, presence of comorbidities, T and N stage, PgR status, and NLR. CONCLUSION: Prognostic models derived from the combination of clinicopathological features and peripheral blood indices, such as NLR, represent attractive markers mainly because they are easily detectable and applicable in daily clinical practice. More comprehensive prospective studies are needed to unveil their actual effectiveness.

Exerkines: A Crosstalk between Lactate Production, Exercise and Mental Health.

Muscle skeletal striated cells secrete a wide range of proteins called myokines or "exerkines", which in turn perform autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine functions. For being able to act in the communication between skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and mainly the brain, exerkines play a prominent role and potential influence on health promotion. Furthermore, we detected in the literature that one of these potential therapeutic substances derived from muscle contraction is a molecule derived from glycolytic metabolism that in the past was largely marginalized, the lactate. Currently, studies are dedicated to examining the target structures for exerkines that may contribute to the maintenance and restoration of mental health. Thus, lactate appears to be recognized as a critical mediator of exercise-related changes and their health benefits, particularly in their role in communication and coordination between organs. It is inferred that the BDNF expression mechanism can be induced by lactate, which in turn derives from the activation of SIRT pathways 1 and 2 and activates the PGC1-α cascade. The behavior of lactate concentration is intensity-dependent, directly related to the type of fast-twitch fibers (type IIb) and the recruitment of these fibers would potentiate the responses in the brain. In this sense, high-intensity exercise would establish itself as an important strategy to be considered. Despite this understanding, there is still much to be done. However, lactate appears to be a highly promising exerkine for future research initiatives and a potential biomarker to reduce illness and promote mental health.

Induction of pyroptotic cell death as a potential tool for cancer treatment.

Cancer is a complex pathological disease and the existing strategies for introducing chemotherapeutic agents have restricted potential due to a lack of cancer cell targeting specificity, cytotoxicity, bioavailability, and induction of multi-drug resistance. As a prospective strategy in tackling cancer, regulating the inflammatory pyroptosis cell death pathway has been shown to successfully inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of various cancer cell types. Activation of inflammasomes such as the NLRP3 results in pyroptosis through cleavage of gasdermins, which forms pores in the cell membranes, inducing membrane breakage, cell rupture, and death. Furthermore, pyroptotic cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1ß and IL-18 along with various DAMPs that prime an auxiliary anti-tumor immune response. Thus, regulation of pyroptosis in cancer cells is a way to enhance their immunogenicity. However, immune escape involving myeloid-derived suppressor cells has limited the efficacy of most pyroptosis-based immunotherapy strategies. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis pathways in cancer cells, exploring how it could modulate the tumor microenvironment and be beneficial in anti-cancer treatments. We discuss various existing therapeutic strategies against cancer, including immunotherapy, oncolytic virus therapy, and nanoparticle-based therapies that could be guided to trigger and regulate pyroptosis cell death in cancer cells, and reduce tumor growth and spread. These pyroptosis-based cancer therapies may open up fresh avenues for targeted cancer therapy approaches in the future and their translation into the clinic.

The Use of the Anticoagulant Heparin and Corticosteroid Dexamethasone as Prominent Treatments for COVID-19.

COVID-19 is spreading worldwide at disturbing rates, overwhelming global healthcare. Mounting death cases due to disease complications highlight the necessity of describing efficient drug therapy strategies for severe patients. COVID-19 severity associates with hypercoagulation and exacerbated inflammation, both influenced by ACE2 downregulation and cytokine storm occurrence. In this review, we discuss the applicability of the anticoagulant heparin and the anti-inflammatory corticosteroid dexamethasone for managing severe COVID-19 patients. The upregulated inflammation and blood clotting may be mitigated by administrating heparin and its derivatives. Heparin enhances the anticoagulant property of anti-thrombin (AT) and may be useful in conjunction with fibrinolytic drugs for severe COVID-19 patients. Besides, heparin can also modulate immune responses, alleviating TNF-α-mediated inflammation, impairing IL-6 production and secretion, and binding to complement proteins and leukotriene B4 (LTB4). Moreover, heparin may present anti-SARS-CoV-2 potential once it can impact viral infectivity and alter SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein architecture. Another feasible approach is the administration of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone. Although glucocorticoid's administration for viral infection managing is controversial, there is increasing evidence demonstrating that dexamethasone treatment is capable of drastically diminishing the death rate of patients presenting with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) that required invasive mechanical ventilation. Importantly, dexamethasone may be detrimental by impairing viral clearance and inducing hyperglycemia and sodium retention, hence possibly being deleterious for diabetics and hypertensive patients, two major COVID-19 risk groups. Therefore, while heparin's multitarget capacity shows to be strongly beneficial for severe COVID-19 patients, dexamethasone should be carefully administered taking into consideration underlying medical conditions and COVID-19 disease severity. Therefore, we suggest that the multitarget impact of heparin as an anti-viral, antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory drug in the early stage of the COVID-19 could significantly reduce the need for dexamethasone treatment in the initial phase of this disease. If the standard treatment of heparins fails on protecting against severe illness, dexamethasone must be applied as a potent anti-inflammatory shutting-down the uncontrolled and exacerbated inflammation.

NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated cytokine production and pyroptosis cell death in breast cancer.

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed malignancy in women. Increasing evidence has highlighted the importance of chronic inflammation at the local and/or systemic level in breast cancer pathobiology, influencing its progression, metastatic potential and therapeutic outcome by altering the tumor immune microenvironment. These processes are mediated by a variety of cytokines, chemokines and growth factors that exert their biological functions either locally or distantly. Inflammasomes are protein signaling complexes that form in response to damage- and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (DAMPS and PAMPS), triggering the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The dysregulation of inflammasome activation can lead to the development of inflammatory diseases, neurodegeneration, and cancer. A crucial signaling pathway leading to acute and chronic inflammation occurs through the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome followed by caspase 1-dependent release of IL-1ß and IL-18 pro-inflammatory cytokines, as well as, by gasdermin D-mediated pyroptotic cell death. In this review we focus on the role of NLRP3 inflammasome and its components in breast cancer signaling, highlighting that a more detailed understanding of the clinical relevance of these pathways could significantly contribute to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for breast cancer.

Multi-Approach Bioinformatics Analysis of Curated Omics Data Provides a Gene Expression Panorama for Multiple Cancer Types.

Studies describing the expression patterns and biomarkers for the tumoral process increase in number every year. The availability of new datasets, although essential, also creates a confusing landscape where common or critical mechanisms are obscured amidst the divergent and heterogeneous nature of such results. In this work, we manually curated the Gene Expression Omnibus using rigorous filtering criteria to select the most homogeneous and highest quality microarray and RNA-seq datasets from multiple types of cancer. By applying systems biology approaches, combined with machine learning analysis, we investigated possible frequently deregulated molecular mechanisms underlying the tumoral process. Our multi-approach analysis of 99 curated datasets, composed of 5,406 samples, revealed 47 differentially expressed genes in all analyzed cancer types, which were all in agreement with the validation using TCGA data. Results suggest that the tumoral process is more related to the overexpression of core deregulated machinery than the underexpression of a given gene set. Additionally, we identified gene expression similarities between different cancer types not described before and performed an overall survival analysis using 20 cancer types. Finally, we were able to suggest a core regulatory mechanism that could be frequently deregulated.

Hypercoagulopathy and Adipose Tissue Exacerbated Inflammation May Explain Higher Mortality in COVID-19 Patients With Obesity.

COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, is characterized by pneumonia, lymphopenia, exhausted lymphocytes and a cytokine storm. Several reports from around the world have identified obesity and severe obesity as one of the strongest risk factors for COVID-19 hospitalization and mechanical ventilation. Moreover, countries with greater obesity prevalence have a higher morbidity and mortality risk of developing serious outcomes from COVID-19. The understanding of how this increased susceptibility of the people with obesity to develop severe forms of the SARS-CoV-2 infection occurs is crucial for implementing appropriate public health and therapeutic strategies to avoid COVID-19 severe symptoms and complications in people living with obesity. We hypothesize here that increased ACE2 expression in adipose tissue displayed by people with obesity may increase SARS-CoV-2 infection and accessibility to this tissue. Individuals with obesity have increased white adipose tissue, which may act as a reservoir for a more extensive viral spread with increased shedding, immune activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine amplification. Here we discuss how obesity is related to a pro-inflammatory and metabolic dysregulation, increased SARS-CoV-2 host cell entry in adipose tissue and induction of hypercoagulopathy, leading people with obesity to develop severe forms of COVID-19 and also death. Taken together, it may be crucial to better explore the role of visceral adipose tissue in the inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and investigate the potential therapeutic effect of using specific target anti-inflammatories (canakinumab or anakinra for IL-1ß inhibition; anti-IL-6 antibodies for IL-6 inhibition), anticoagulant or anti-diabetic drugs in COVID-19 treatment of people with obesity. Defining the immunopathological changes in COVID-19 patients with obesity can provide prominent targets for drug discovery and clinical management improvement.

Obesity and Breast Cancer: The Role of Crown-Like Structures in Breast Adipose Tissue in Tumor Progression, Prognosis, and Therapy.

Obesity is associated with increased risk and aggressiveness of many types of cancer. Women with obesity and breast cancer are more likely to be diagnosed with larger and higher-grade tumors and have higher incidence of metastases than lean individuals. Increasing evidence indicates that obesity includes systemic, chronic low-grade inflammation, and that adipose tissue can act as an important endocrine site, secreting a variety of substances that may regulate inflammation, immune response, and cancer predisposition. Obesity-associated inflammation appears to be initially mediated by macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue. Macrophages can surround damaged or necrotic adipocytes, forming "crown-like" structures (CLS). CLS are increased in breast adipose tissue from breast cancer patients and are more abundant in patients with obesity conditions. Moreover, the CLS index-ratio from individuals with obesity seems to influence breast cancer recurrence rates and survival. In this review, we discuss the most recent cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in CLS establishment in the white adipose tissue of women with obesity and their implications for breast cancer biology. We also explain how CLS influence the tumor microenvironment and affect breast cancer behavior. Targeting breast adipose tissue CLS can be a crucial therapeutic tool in cancer treatment, especially in patients with obesity.

ALTERATION OF BONE MINERAL DENSITY IN BREAST CANCER FEMALE SURVIVORS ON CHEMOTHERAPY TREATMENT: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW / Alteração da densidade mineral óssea em mulheres sobreviventes de câncer de mama tratadas com quimioterapia: revisão integrativa da literatura

Introduction: Chemotherapy for treatment of patients with breast cancer has increased the survival of this population. However, it can significantly reduce bone mineral density (BMD). Objective: To verify bone mineral density modifications in women with breast cancer undergoing chemotherapy, as well as their clinical characteristics and risk factors. Methods: Integrative review of papers published from 2006 to 2016, carried out through specific terms in PubMed and SciELO databases. Results: In that period, 898 papers were identified (897 in PubMed and 1 in SciELO). Among the six papers recovered, there was a considerable reduction in lumbar spine and femoral bone mass. For women submitted to chemotherapy, the main regimens associated with the reduction were doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide (AC), cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil (CMF) and cyclophosphamide, epirubicin and 5-fluorouracil (FEC). In addition, there was greater BMD reduction among women aged more than 50 years, Caucasian and who presented early ovarian failure induced by chemotherapy. Conclusion: The use of chemotherapy for breast cancer may lead to bone mass loss, especially when AC, CMF and FEC are used in women aged more than 50 years and among those with early menopause due to this treatment.

Introdução: O uso de quimioterápicos para o tratamento de pacientes com câncer de mama tem aumentado a sobrevida dessa população. Entretanto, pode reduzir significativamente a densidade mineral óssea (DMO). Objetivo: Verificar a alteração da densidade mineral óssea em mulheres com câncer de mama submetidas a quimioterapia, assim como as características clínicas e os fatores de risco. Métodos: Revisão integrativa da literatura de artigos publicados no período de 2006 a 2016, realizada por meio de termos específicos nos bancos de dados da PubMed e da SciELO. Resultados: No período selecionado, foram identificados 898 artigos (897 na base PubMed e 1 na SciELO). Entre os seis artigos recuperados para leitura na íntegra, observou-se redução considerável na massa óssea na coluna lombar e no fêmur. Os principais tipos associados à redução foram os regimes doxorrubicina e ciclofosfamida (AC), ciclofosfamida, metotrexato e 5-fluorouracil (CMF) e ciclofosfamida, epirrubicina e 5-fluorouracil (FEC). Além disso, houve maior redução da DMO entre as mulheres com idade acima de 50 anos, caucasianas e que apresentaram falência ovariana precoce induzida pela quimioterapia. Conclusão: O uso de quimioterápicos para tratamento do câncer de mama pode acarretar perda de massa óssea, principalmente quando se utilizam os regimes AC, CMF e FEC em mulheres com idade acima de 50 anos e entre aquelas que apresentam menopausa precoce decorrente desse tratamento.

The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio: a narrative review.

Cellular-mediated inflammatory response, lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes are increasingly being recognised as having an important role in tumorigenesis and carcinogenesis. In this context, studies have suggested that the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) can be used as an independent prognostic factor in a variety of cancers. Particularly in breast cancer, several studies have shown that a high NLR is associated with shorter survival. Because the NLR can be easily determined from the full blood count, it could potentially provide a simple and inexpensive test cancer prognosis. This review addresses the possibilities and limitations of using the NLR as a clinical tool for risk stratification helpful for individual treatment of breast cancer patients. The potential underlying phenomena and some perspectives are discussed.

Clinical application of thoracic paravertebral anesthetic block in breast surgeries / Aplicação clínica do bloqueio anestésico paravertebral torácico em operações de mama / Aplicación clínica del bloqueo anestésico paravertebral torácico en operaciones de mama

INTRODUCTION: Optimum treatment for postoperative pain has been of fundamental importance in surgical patient care. Among the analgesic techniques aimed at this group of patients, thoracic paravertebral block combined with general anesthesia stands out for the good results and favorable risk-benefit ratio. Many local anesthetics and other adjuvant drugs are being investigated for use in this technique, in order to improve the quality of analgesia and reduce adverse effects. OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the effectiveness and safety of paravertebral block compared to other analgesic and anesthetic regimens in women undergoing breast cancer surgeries. METHODS: Integrative literature review from 1966 to 2012, using specific terms in computerized databases of articles investigating the clinical characteristics, adverse effects, and beneficial effects of thoracic paravertebral block. RESULTS: On the selected date, 16 randomized studies that met the selection criteria established for this literature review were identified. Thoracic paravertebral block showed a significant reduction of postoperative pain, as well as decreased pain during arm movement after surgery. CONCLUSION: Thoracic paravertebral block reduced postoperative analgesic requirement compared to placebo group, markedly within the first 24 h. The use of this technique could ensure postoperative analgesia of clinical relevance. Further studies with larger populations are necessary, as paravertebral block seems to be promising for preemptive analgesia in breast cancer surgery. .

INTRODUçÃO: o adequado tratamento da dor pós-operatória tem sido de fundamental importância nos cuidados com o paciente cirúrgico. Entre as técnicas de analgesia direcionadas para esse grupo de pacientes, o bloqueio paravertebral torácico combinado com a anestesia geral se destaca pelos bons resultados e pela favorável relação risco-benefício. Muitos anestésicos locais e outros fármacos adjuvantes vêm sendo investigados para uso nessa técnica, com vistas a melhorar a qualidade da analgesia e reduzir os efeitos adversos. OBJETIVO: avaliar a eficácia e a segurança do bloqueio paravertebral em comparação com outros regimes analgésicos e anestésicos em mulheres submetidas a cirurgias para câncer de mama. MÉTODOS: revisão integrativa da literatura de 1966 a 2012, feita por meio de termos específicos nos bancos de dados informatizados, de artigos que investigaram as características clínicas e os efeitos adversos e benéficos do bloqueio paravertebral torácico. RESULTADOS: no período selecionado, foram identificados 16 estudos randomizados que preenchiam os critérios de seleção estabelecidos para essa revisão bibliográfica. O bloqueio paravertebral torácico demonstrou uma redução significativa da dor pós-operatória, bem como diminuição da dor durante movimentos do braço após a cirurgia. CONCLUSÃO: o bloqueio paravertebral torácico reduziu a necessidade pós-operatória de analgésicos quando comparado ao grupo placebo, notadamente dentro das primeiras 24 horas. O emprego dessa técnica poderia garantir uma analgesia pós-cirúrgica de relevância clínica. Novos estudos, com maiores grupos populacionais, fazem-se necessários, uma vez que o bloqueio paravertebral parece promissor em analgesia preemptiva para cirurgia de câncer de mama. .

INTRODUCCIÓN: El adecuado tratamiento del dolor postoperatorio ha tenido una importancia fundamental en los cuidados con el paciente quirúrgico. Entre las técnicas de analgesia dirigidas a ese grupo de pacientes, el bloqueo paravertebral torácico combinado con la anestesia general se destaca por los buenos resultados y por la favorable relación riesgo-beneficio. Muchos anestésicos locales y otros fármacos adyuvantes están siendo investigados para el uso en esa técnica, con vistas a mejorar la calidad de la analgesia y reducir los efectos adversos. OBJETIVO: Evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad del bloqueo paravertebral en comparación con otros regímenes analgésicos y anestésicos en mujeres sometidas a cirugías para cáncer de mama. MÉTODOS: Revisión integral de la literatura de 1966 a 2012, hecha por medio de términos específicos en las bases de datos informatizadas de artículos que investigaron las características clínicas y los efectos adversos y beneficiosos del bloqueo paravertebral torácico. RESULTADOS: En el período seleccionado, fueron identificados 16 estudios aleatorizados que cumplían los criterios de selección establecidos para esa revisión bibliográfica. El bloqueo paravertebral torácico demostró una reducción significativa del dolor postoperatorio, también una disminución del dolor durante los movimientos del brazo después de la cirugía. CONCLUSIÓN: El bloqueo paravertebral torácico redujo la necesidad postoperatoria de analgésicos cuando se le comparó con el grupo placebo, específicamente dentro de las primeras 24 h. El uso de esa técnica podría garantizar una analgesia posquirúrgica de relevancia clínica. Son necesarios nuevos estudios con mayores grupos poblacionales, puesto que el bloqueo paravertebral parece ser prometedor para la analgesia preventiva en la cirugía de cáncer de mama. .

[Clinical application of thoracic paravertebral anesthetic block in breast surgeries]. / Aplicação clínica do bloqueio anestésico paravertebral torácico em operações de mama.

INTRODUCTION: optimum treatment for postoperative pain has been of fundamental importance in surgical patient care. Among the analgesic techniques aimed at this group of patients, thoracic paravertebral block combined with general anesthesia stands out for the good results and favorable risk-benefit ratio. Many local anesthetics and other adjuvant drugs are being investigated for use in this technique, in order to improve the quality of analgesia and reduce adverse effects. OBJECTIVE: evaluate the effectiveness and safety of paravertebral block compared to other analgesic and anesthetic regimens in women undergoing breast cancer surgeries. METHODS: integrative literature review from 1966 to 2012, using specific terms in computerized databases of articles investigating the clinical characteristics, adverse effects, and beneficial effects of thoracic paravertebral block. RESULTS: on the selected date, 16 randomized studies that met the selection criteria established for this literature review were identified. Thoracic paravertebral block showed a significant reduction of post-operative pain, as well as decreased pain during arm movement after surgery. CONCLUSION: thoracic paravertebral block reduced postoperative analgesic requirement compared to placebo group, markedly within the first 24hours. The use of this technique could ensure postoperative analgesia of clinical relevance. Further studies with larger populations are necessary, as paravertebral block seems to be promising for preemptive analgesia in breast cancer surgery.

Prevalência e perfil clínico da síndrome de mama fantasma: revisão integrativa / Prevalence and Clinical Profile of the Phantom Breast Syndrome: Integrative

Introdução: A síndrome da mama fantasma consiste na sensação de persistência da mama após sua retirada e engloba tanto as sensações não dolorosas quanto as dolorosas. Embora seja relatada em estudos populacionais, os seus aspectos clínicos assim como sua prevalência permanecem desconhecidos. Objetivo: Traçar o perfil das pesquisas populacionais realizadas tanto no Brasil quanto ao redor do mundo que investigaram as características clínicas assim como a incidência ou prevalência da sensação da mama fantasma, seja essa dolorosa ou não. Método: Revisão integrativa da literatura no período de 2002 a 2011, realizada por meio de termos específicos nos bancos de dados PubMed, LILACS e SciELO.Foram resgatados artigos que investigaram as características clínicas, assim como a prevalência da síndrome da mama fantasma no Brasil e no Mundo. Resultados: No período selecionado, foram identificados quatro estudos prospectivos e dez transversais que preenchiam os critérios de seleção estabelecidos para essa revisão bibliográfica. Uma vasta gamade métodos de avaliação foi encontrada, evidenciando uma ausência de padronização. Observou-se que, apesar de diversos estudos avaliarem e descreverem o desenvolvimento de quadros álgicos e morbidades pós-operatórias, poucos buscaram delimitar as características da mama fantasma, tornando-se um assunto secundário no processo de lidar com a mastectomia. Conclusão: É necessário ressaltar a importância de uma maior exploração da síndrome da mama fantasma como morbidade pós-cirúrgica do câncer de mama, para que determinadas ações sejam direcionadas ao seu melhor conhecimento e investigação.