Trichromatic perception of flower colour improves resource detection among New World monkeys.

Many plants use colour to attract pollinators, which often possess colour vision systems well-suited for detecting flowers. Yet, to isolate the role of colour is difficult, as flowers also produce other cues. The study of florivory by Neotropical primates possessing polymorphic colour vision provides an opportunity to investigate the importance of colour directly. Here we determine whether differences in colour vision within a mixed population of wild dichromatic and trichromatic white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus imitator) affect flower foraging behaviours. We collected reflectance data for flower foods and modelled their chromatic properties to capuchin colour vision phenotypes. We collected behavioural data over 22 months spanning four years, determined the colour vision phenotype of each monkey based on amino acid variation of the L/M opsin gene from fecal DNA, and compared foraging behaviours of dichromats and trichromats. Most flowers were more conspicuous to trichromats, and trichromats foraged in small flower patches significantly more often. These data demonstrate a difference in wild primate foraging patterns based on colour vision differences, supporting the hypothesis that trichromacy enhances detection of small, ephemeral resources. This advantage, which may also extend to other foods, likely contributes to the maintenance of colour vision polymorphism in Neotropical monkeys.

Hormonal correlates of life history characteristics in wild female Colobus vellerosus.

Documenting primate life history characteristics is important because it provides information about traits that affect the timing and rate of reproduction in these long-lived species. This study describes the hormonal correlates of female reproductive events and quantifies for the first time key life history variables for Colobus vellerosus, using hormonal and observational data. This study also biologically validates that the reproductive events determined in the hormone profiles correspond to observed reproductive events for each female. We collected behavioural data on 18 females in our four study groups during 12 months (May 2012-2013) at the Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary, using 10-min continuous focal and ad libitum sampling. We concurrently collected faecal samples (n = 1866) every 2-3 days from these 18 females (prepubescent n = 2, cycling n = 2, lactating n = 12, pregnant, n = 7, and post-reproductive n = 1) and extracted oestrogen (E2) and progesterone (P) metabolites in the field using solid-phase extraction cartridges. We created a hormone profile for each female by analyzing 1586 of our samples for E2 using radio-immuno assays, and P using enzyme-immunoassays at the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center. Mean ovarian cycle length was 24 days ± 1 (n = 2 cycles). Mean gestation length was 23 weeks (range = 21-25 weeks, n = 2 complete pregnancies). For females whose infants survived to nutritional independence, the mean inter-birth interval (IBI) was significantly longer than for females whose infants died prior to reaching nutritional independence (Mann-Whitney U Test; U = 14.5, p = 0.006; IBI surviving infants: 17.75 months, range = 8-20.75 months, n = 11 vs. IBI infant death: 11.89 months, range = 8-18.5 months, n = 9). The values for most life history traits reported in this study are similar to those documented in other similarly sized colobine species. Some values are on the lower end of the range for similarly sized colobines; C. vellerosus shows a cycle of 24 days and gestation length of 5.75 months vs. a range of 24-29 days for cycle length and 5.25-7.5 months for gestation length in other colobines. This may be due to C. vellerosus' smaller body size, or their limited access to higher quality food resources.

Food search through the eyes of a monkey: a functional substitution approach for assessing the ecology of primate color vision.

Efficient detection and selection of reddish fruits against green foliage has long been thought to be a major selective pressure favoring the evolution of primate trichromatic color vision. This has recently been questioned by studies of free-ranging primates that fail to show predicted differences in foraging efficiency between dichromats and trichromats. In the present study, we use a unique approach to evaluate the adaptive significance of trichromacy for fruit detection by undertaking a functional substitution model. The color vision phenotypes of neotropical monkeys are simulated for human observers, who use a touch-sensitive computer interface to search for monkey food items in digital images taken under natural conditions. We find an advantage to trichromatic phenotypes - especially the variant with the most spectrally separated visual pigments - for red, yellow and greenish fruits, but not for dark (purple or black) fruits. These results indicate that trichromat advantage is task-specific, and that shape, size and achromatic contrast variation between ripe and unripe fruits cannot completely mitigate the advantage of color vision. Similarities in fruit foraging performance between primates with different phenotypes in the wild likely reflect the behavioral flexibility of dichromats in overcoming a chromatic disadvantage.

Reproductive termination in female Japanese monkeys: A comparative life history perspective.

This study explores the question of reproductive termination (loss of reproductive ability) in female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) from the Arashiyama West (Texas) troop. We used a large sample of completed lives to identify reproductively terminated female Japanese macaques and to consider reproductive termination in Japanese macaques from a comparative life history perspective, which permits meaningful comparisons to be made with human female menopause. We classified a female as reproductively terminated if the time lag between last parturition and death exceeded two standard deviations of the female's own mean lifetime interbirth interval (Caro et al. [1995] Int. J. Primatol. 16:205-220). Seventy of the 95 females in the sample had at least 3 infants over their lifetime (the minimum required for the calculation of a mean and standard deviation), and thus were included in the analysis. Of these 70 females, 20 showed reproductive termination. Reproductively terminated females ranged in age from 14.5-32.7 years, although in females under age 25, reproductive termination was unlikely. The majority of females up to age 25 showed continued parturition. However, after age 25, reproductive termination was population-wide. Length of postreproductive life for reproductively terminated females varied from 0.07-4.4 years, with a mean of 2.08 years. Variation in length of postreproductive life was not related to the age at death of the female. While the occurrence of population-wide reproductive termination after 25 years does suggest similarities with human female menopause, the age at which this termination occurs is very late in the life span, and it was experienced by only 2.9% of the population. Female Japanese monkeys over age 25 are visibly aged and show outward signs of weakness and deterioration, quite unlike the healthy middle age of menopausal human females. Accordingly, as a life history characteristic, reproductive termination in Japanese macaques does not appear to coincide with menopause as experienced by human females.

Sex differences in mortality of Japanese macaques: twenty-one years of data from the Arashiyama West population.

Theorists argue that mortality in male mammals should be higher than that of females, and many studies of primates followed across the life course have found this to be the case. This study examines mortality patterns in the rapidly expanding Arashiyama West (Texas) population of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) and finds that males have a significantly lower median survival age (12.2 years) in comparison to females (20.5 years). Males and females are born in equal proportions, but by adulthood there are 2-5 females to every male. Males are at higher risk of falling victim to infectious diseases and human-related causes of death, and they are more likely to "disappear" from the population, which is inferred to result largely from emigration. There are no significant sex differences in the risks of dying from predation, non-infectious illnesses, neonatal defect, or social stress. Males become more susceptible to mortality than females once they reach sexual maturity, and they remain at greater risk than females until their old age. There is no evidence that one sex or the other is at greater risk of dying as infants, or as juveniles. Comparing males of different age classes, adolescent and adult males are more likely to die and to disappear than are juvenile males. These findings support the "high-risk, high-gain" hypothesis that males are mainly lost to the population because of their risk-taking behaviors after sexual maturity, rather than the "fragile male" hypothesis that males are more vulnerable to mortality during the period of growth and development.

Field methods for capture and measurement of three monkey species in Costa Rica.

A total of 54 free-ranging monkeys were captured and marked in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, during May 1985, and an additional 17 were captured during March 1986. The animals were darted using a blowpipe or a CO2 gun. The drugs used were Ketaset, Sernylan and Telazol. Ketaset was effective for Cebus capucinus but unsuccessful for Alouatta palliata and Ateles geoffroyi. Sernylan was successful for A. geoffroyi and A. palliata but is no longer commercially available. Telazol proved to be an excellent alternative capture drug for both A. palliata and A. geoffroyi.

Dietary differences between neighboring Cebus capucinus groups: local traditions, food availability or responses to food profitability?

The feeding patterns of three neighboring groups of Cebus capucinus were documented over a 3-year period in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. We describe the diets of the three groups and examine whether dietary differences between groups could be attributed to environmental differences in food abundances, to differences in the profitability of what was available or to learned local traditions. Diets were variable among groups; group A primarily ate fruit (81.2% of feeding time) and spent little time eating insects (16.9%), while group C was more heavily reliant on insects (44.3%) and ate less fruit (53.0%). Group B had a diet that was somewhat intermediate (69.8% fruit, 29.0% insects). By measuring the densities of all major plant foods, we were able to determine that many of the dietary differences between groups could not be attributed to simple measures of food abundance, but we could not distinguish between the food profitability hypothesis and local tradition hypothesis.

Vertebrate predation in Cebus capucinus: meat eating in a neotropical monkey.

A long-term study of two groups of white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) in Santa Rosa National Park in Costa Rica provides evidence of unusually high levels of vertebrate predation compared to those reported in other field studies of Cebus. The hunting techniques for different prey types are described, and several questions concerning vertebrate predation in primates are addressed. Why is there variation between individuals and between groups in the rate of predation? Why do males hunt more than females? Previous hypotheses to explain hunting in Old World primates are applied to this Neotropical example. Finally, I argue that successful vertebrate predation can readily arise in species like Cebus, which are characterized by opportunistic foraging patterns, manipulative and cognitive skills and well-developed techniques for locating and subduing invertebrate prey.

Lifetime reproductive success in female Japanese macaques.

Lifetime reproductive success, measured by the number of offspring surviving to age five, varied from 0 to 10 in a group of 33 provisioned female Japanese macaques. Of the three contributors to reproductive success, the number of reproductive years, fecundity per year and survivorship of offspring to reproductive age, the first accounted for two-thirds of the variation. Fecundity per year and survivorship were negatively correlated, indicating reproductive costs of reducing interbirth interval. No other demographic measure used, nor the behavioral measure 'dominance rank', significantly correlated with lifetime reproductive success or its components. Age-specific changes in fecundity and infant survival were not found for this sample, neither could cessation of reproduction, even in very old females, be demonstrated.

Grooming and consort partner selection in a troop of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata).

The Arashiyama West troop of Macaca fuscata consists of 150 monkeys transported from Kyoto, Japan, in February 1972 to their present location near Laredo, Texas. At this site the animals range over 108 acres and during the study period were only minimally provisioned and disturbed. In the report of a 3-year study of consort partner selection it was suggested that yearlong social bonds within the troop appeared to be distinct from consort bonds formed during mating season. Like Sade, we consider grooming to be a good measure of yearround affinitive bonding in macaques. This study compares the pairs formed for consorting with those formed for yearlong grooming activities, by the 94 individuals who formed consort relationships during the mating season of 1973--1974. It was found that yearlong grooming involved pairs of monkeys which were significantly different from those for consorting. Grooming was relatively frequent between related monkeys, while consort partners were seldom related. In addition, yearlong grooming patterns were not disrupted during mating season. These results suggest that consort and grooming activities are behavioral expressions of two important social networks, involving mutually exclusive social bonds.