Experimental Comparison of the Clinical Measurement of Ankle Joint Dorsiflexion and Radiographic Tibiotalar Position.

Clinical measurement of ankle dorsiflexion is typically used to diagnose limited ankle range of motion. Controversy and a lack of clarity continue regarding the most accurate clinical method of measuring ankle joint dorsiflexion and the effect that the foot position (supinated, neutral, pronated) has on the true tibiotalar position. We investigated the effects of supinated, neutral and pronated foot positions on the clinical dorsiflexion measurements in 50 healthy subjects and compared these results to the radiographic measurement of tibiotalar joint position with the ankle maximally dorsiflexed in each of the 3 foot positions. Interrater reliability was confirmed to be adequate among the 3 clinicians of varied skill levels. Radiographic measurements of the tibiotalar position showed very little change in each of the 3 foot positions, with a total difference of 0.35° between supination and pronation. However, we found a mean difference of 14° of dorsiflexion in the clinical measurements between the pronated and supinated foot position, with a 9.08° difference between the neutral and supinated positions. Motion of the foot between the neutral and supinated positions introduced an additional source of potential error from the measurement technique when using the neutral position as the standard, which has been recommended in the past. We recommend a supinated foot position as a more reliable foot position for measuring the clinical ankle joint range of motion and propose it as a potential standard.

Comparison of Tibial Sesamoid Position on Anteroposterior and Axial Radiographs Before and After Triplane Tarsal Metatarsal Joint Arthrodesis.

We reviewed the radiographic results of a group of patients who had undergone triplane correctional tarsometatarsal arthrodesis for symptomatic hallux abducto valgus with metatarsus primus abducto valgus. Of the 21 feet included in the present review, 17 (81%) displayed radiographic findings of metatarsal pronation preoperatively based on axial sesamoid views and positive lateral round sign on anteroposterior radiographs. At a mean follow-up period of 5.2 ± 1.6 months, a significant improvement in the tibial sesamoid position (TSP) on both anteroposterior (AP) and axial radiographs was measured. A negative metatarsal round sign, indicating correction of coronal plane metatarsal rotation, was observed in 20 of the 21 feet (95.2%) on AP radiographic evaluation. All 21 patients (100%) had obtained resolution of sesamoid subluxation on the sesamoid axial view at the final follow-up examination. The sesamoid axial position was consistently normal when the round sign was absent, and the TSP was in the normal range of 1 to 3 on the AP radiograph. Sesamoid subluxation from the normal position with the tibial sesamoid on or lateral to the crista was noted in 4 feet (19%) preoperatively and 0 feet postoperatively. This confirmed that lateral round sign of the first metatarsal head and a high TSP noted on the AP radiograph are both related to metatarsal pronation and can be corrected concurrently with coronal plane varus rotation of the first metatarsal as a part of the procedure.

Noninsertional Achilles Tendinopathy Pathologic Background and Clinical Examination.

The term tendinopathy includes a series of pathologies, all of which have a combination of pain, swelling, and impaired performance. The terms tendinosis, tendinitis and peritendinitis are all within the main heading of tendinopathy; this terminology provides a more accurate understanding of the condition and highlights the uniformity of clinical findings while distinguishing the individual histopathological findings of each condition. Understanding the clinical features and the underlying histopathology leads to a more accurate clinical diagnosis and subsequent treatment selection. Misuse of the term tendinitis can lead to the underestimation of chronic degenerative nature of many tendinopathies, affecting the treatment selection.

Comparison of Transverse and Coronal Plane Stability at the First Tarsal-Metatarsal Joint With Multiple Screw Orientations.

Intercuneiform instability has been recognized as a potential cause of hallux valgus recurrence following tarsal-metatarsal joint (TMTJ) fusion. Recommendations have been made for additional screw placement between the metatarsals and/or the cuneiforms to improve stability. The screw orientation that provides the best stability has not been documented. Twelve cadavers with the first TMTJ fixated were used for testing. Using a consistent force application of 15 pounds in both the transverse and coronal planes, we measured the change in intermetatarsal angle on radiographs. Force testing was repeated with screws deployed individually in the following orientations: first to second cuneiform (CC), first to second metatarsal (MM), and first metatarsal to middle cuneiform (MC). Our results indicate that stability of the first ray in the transverse and coronal planes is not improved with TMTJ fixation alone or with an additional CC screw. The MM screw consistently reduced first metatarsal instability in both planes. The MC screw had intermediate results. These findings strengthen the notion that first ray instability is complex and involves the tarsal and metatarsal articulations at multiple levels outside of the TMTJ alone. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic and Therapeutic, Level IV: Cadaveric Study.

Quantitative Analysis of the Degree of Frontal Rotation Required to Anatomically Align the First Metatarsal Phalangeal Joint During Modified Tarsal-Metatarsal Arthrodesis Without Capsular Balancing.

The data from 35 consecutive patients with hallux valgus undergoing triplane arthrodesis at the first tarsal metatarsal joint were studied to determine the amount of first metatarsal frontal plane rotation (supination) needed to anatomically align the first metatarsal phalangeal joint on an anterior posterior radiograph without soft tissue balancing at the first metatarsal phalangeal joint. Radiographs were measured both pre- and postoperatively to assess the 1-2 intermetatarsal angle, hallux abductus angle, and tibial sesamoid position (TSP). The mean amount of varus (supination) rotation performed during correction was 22.1° ± 5.2° and the mean amount of intermetatarsal angle reduction achieved after completion of the procedure was 6.9° ± 3.0°. The TSP changed by a mean of 3.3° ± 1.2°. A series of univariate linear regression analyses was performed to analyze the relationship between the frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal performed during the operation and the preoperative intermetatarsal angle, hallux abductus angle, and TSP. Greater preoperative TSP scores were associated with greater intraoperative varus (supination) rotation required for joint alignment. Direct observation of the alignment changes at the first metatarsal phalangeal joint after metatarsal rotation without distal procedures strengthened the notion that the frontal plane rotational position plays an important role in the bunion deformity.

Comparison of Complications for Internal and External Fixation for Charcot Reconstruction: A Systematic Review.

The surgical reconstruction of Charcot deformity can be a challenge for foot and ankle surgeons. Consensus is lacking among surgeons regarding the best method of surgical fixation to be used in reconstruction, and clear strong evidence is also lacking in published studies. We undertook a systematic review of electronic databases and other relevant sources in an attempt to better understand the complications and outcomes associated with internal and external fixation for Charcot foot and ankle reconstruction. A total of 23 level 4 studies with 616 procedures were identified. Of these, 12 studies with 275 procedures used internal fixation, and 11 studies with 341 procedures used external fixation. The odds of a successful outcome with internal fixation was 6.86. The odds of a successful outcome with external fixation was 13.20 (odds ratio 0.52, 95% confidence interval 0.30 to 0.90). The odds of success for internal fixation was 0.52 times as likely as the odds of success with external fixation. Because the odds ratio did not include 1, this difference was statistically significant at the p < .05 level. An identified trend was that external fixation was used more often in cases deemed to be difficult by the surgeon preoperatively. These findings could prove helpful to foot and ankle surgeons when making decisions regarding fixation for Charcot reconstruction.

Complications of metatarsal suture techniques for bunion correction: a systematic review of the literature.

To better understand the safety of suture techniques to reduce the intermetatarsal angle in patients with hallux valgus deformity, we undertook a systematic review of the complications associated with the use of this technique. The suture procedures of 197 patients were analyzed for complications. The number of complications in the total group (n = 197) at a pooled mean follow-up period of 23.2 months was 39 (19.8%) and included 21 fractures (10.7%), 11 cases of hardware failure (5.6%), and 7 cases of hallux varus (3.6%). The cohort of patients was further categorized by the specific procedure technique. The number of complications in the Mini TightRope(®) group (n = 132) at a pooled mean follow-up period of 16.2 months was 33 (25%) and included 18 fractures (13.6%), 10 cases of hardware failure (7.6%), and 5 cases of hallux varus (3.8%). The number of complications in the syndesmosis technique group (n = 65) at a pooled mean follow-up period of 56.1 months was 6 (9.2%) and included 3 fractures (5%), 1 case of hardware failure (1.5%), and 2 cases of hallux varus (3%). From our review of the published experience with this technique, a high complication rate can be expected.

Is our current paradigm for evaluation and management of the bunion deformity flawed? A discussion of procedure philosophy relative to anatomy.

Of the >100 procedures that have been proposed to treat hallux valgus or the "bunion" deformity, most have focused on correction through metatarsal osteotomies at various levels combined with soft tissue balancing procedures at the first metatarsophalangeal joint. This paradigm of metatarsal osteotomy and soft tissue balancing has been so commonplace, any argument for a fundamental change to the approach becomes uncomfortable and seems unwarranted to most foot and ankle surgeons. However, the simple fact that so many procedures exist, with so many modifications of these procedures, can be interpreted as a failure of our basic paradigm of metatarsal osteotomy and soft tissue balancing. We have observed that failure to recognize frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal and our willingness to ignore deformity correction principles and create osteotomies outside the center of rotation of angulation are factors that can result in inconsistent outcomes. Our current multiprocedural mindset drives the search for yet more procedures and modifications in an attempt to reduce the incidence of complications. We present an anatomic analysis of hallux abducto valgus and metatarsus primus adducto valgus and critically analyze some of the shortcomings of currently popular corrective procedures. We also review the available data regarding frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal and propose a new paradigm that considers frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal as a priority in choosing the most appropriate procedure for bunion correction.

Observed changes in radiographic measurements of the first ray after frontal and transverse plane rotation of the hallux: does the hallux drive the metatarsal in a bunion deformity?

It is well known that the pathologic positions of the hallux and the first metatarsal in a bunion deformity are multiplanar. It is not universally understood whether the pathologic changes in the hallux or first metatarsal drive the deformity. We have observed that frontal plane rotation of the hallux can result in concurrent positional changes proximally in the first metatarsal in hallux abducto valgus. In the present study, we observed the changes in common radiographic measurements used to evaluate a bunion deformity in 5 fresh frozen cadaveric limbs. We measured the tibial sesamoid position, 1-2 intermetatarsal angle, and first metatarsal cuneiform angle on anteroposterior radiographs after frontal and transverse plane manipulation of the hallux. When the hallux was moved into an abducted and valgus position, a statistically significant increase was found in the tibial sesamoid position (p = .016). However, we did not observe a significant increase in the intermetatarsal angle (p = .070) or medial cuneiform angle (p = .309). When the hallux was manipulated into an adducted and varus position, a statistically significant decrease in the intermetatarsal angle (p = .02) and a decrease in the tibial sesamoid position (p = .016) was seen, with no significant change in the medial cuneiform angle (p = .360). We also observed a consistent rounding of the lateral aspect of the first metatarsal head and an increase in the concavity of the lateral metatarsal shaft, with valgus rotation of the hallux. From these observations, it is possible that the hallux could drive the proximal changes in the first ray that lead to metatarsus primus adducto valgus deformity.

Reduction of the intermetatarsal angle after first metatarsal phalangeal joint arthrodesis: a systematic review.

Arthrodesis of the first metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) has commonly been used for the treatment of a variety of first MTPJ disorders, including hallux valgus. We undertook a systematic review of the electronic databases and other relevant sources to identify material relating to the reduction of the first intermetatarsal angle (IMA) after first MTPJ arthrodesis. Fifteen studies with a total of 701 first MTPJ arthrodesis procedures were identified that met the inclusion criteria. Our results showed the mean preoperative IMA was 13.74° and the mean postoperative IMA was 9.38°, for a mean change in the IMA of 4.36°. The data were analyzed further in 2 subsets. The first subset included 8 studies (434 procedures) that reported a mean preoperative IMA of less than 15°. The mean change in the IMA in this group was 3.70°. The second subset included 7 studies (267 procedures) that reported a mean preoperative IMA of greater than 15°. The mean change in the IMA in this group was 5.42°. The results of the present systematic review have confirmed that a significant reduction of the first IMA can be achieved by first MTPJ arthrodesis alone and that additional procedures to correct the IMA will not be necessary.

Technique for minimally invasive reduction of calcaneal fractures using small bilateral external fixation.

Soft tissue complications are well known after extensile exposure of the calcaneus for open reduction internal fixation of fractures. A variety of recommendations have been proposed to reduce soft tissue healing issues and infection. Despite these recommendations, some surgeons believe that soft tissue complication rates have remained unacceptably high with lateral extensile incisions. Recently, interest in minimally invasive repair techniques for calcaneal fractures has increased. These techniques have been purported to avoid some of the common soft tissue problems seen with calcaneal open reduction internal fixation. The focus of the present communication is to share a minimally invasive surgical method for the reduction and fixation of calcaneal fractures. Percutaneous fixation of the posterior facet fragments can be facilitated by distraction of the fractured calcaneus using skeletal traction and a small bilateral external fixator. Final stability is achieved with a combination of the external fixator and percutaneous screws and/or wires. We present our technique and discuss recent published studies on minimally invasive repair of calcaneal fractures.

Incidence of surgical site infection in the foot and ankle with early exposure and showering of surgical sites: a prospective observation.

The incidence of postoperative surgical site infection (SSI) reported in the published data for foot and ankle surgery has been 1.0% to 5.3%. A variety of interventions have been used before, during, and after surgery to decrease the patient's risk of acquiring an infection at the surgical site. Foot and ankle surgeons often keep the incision site dry and covered until the sutures and pins have been removed, with the goal of preventing a SSI, despite the lack of available published evidence to support this practice. We undertook a prospective observation of 110 elective surgical patients to determine the rate of SSI when early surgical site exposure and showering were allowed. The risk factors for infection were recorded, and a series of logistic regression analyses was performed to determine the associations between the infection rate and early showering. The patients were evaluated at each postoperative appointment for signs of infection. For the present study, mild infection was defined as the subjective presence of erythema and/or swelling beyond that typically expected in the early postoperative period. These cases of presumed or mild SSI were managed with oral antibiotics until they had resolved. Major infection was defined as any infection altering the course of recovery or requiring admission or additional surgery. The overall infection rate was 4.5%, with all infections considered mild. Logistic regression analysis showed that none of the recorded risk factors significantly predicted infection. The results of the present study suggest that early daily showering of a surgical site after foot and ankle surgery will not be significantly associated with an increased risk of infection.

Observed changes in radiographic measurements of the first ray after frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal in a cadaveric foot model.

We observed the changes in the angular measurements commonly used in the evaluation of the first metatarsal and first metatarsophalangeal joint in cadaveric specimens before and after frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal. Measurements of the first and second intermetatarsal angle (IMA), hallux abductus angle, proximal articular set angle, and tibial sesamoid position (TSP) were taken after varying degrees of varus and valgus rotation of the first metatarsal. Standard dorsoplantar radiographs were taken at 0°, 10°, 20°, and 30° of valgus rotation of the first metatarsal and repeated at 10°, 20°, and 30° varus rotation of the first metatarsal. The data were analyzed using a mixed linear model to compare the change in each angle measurement over the range of valgus and varus rotation. The change in the TSP was significant in both valgus and varus rotations (p = .0004 and p = .028, respectively), an increase in valgus rotation causing an increase in the TSP and an increase in varus rotation causing a decrease in TSP. The change in the IMA was significant compared with valgus rotation (p = .028), showing that as the valgus rotation increased, the IMA also increased. However, compared with the varus rotation, the correlation was not significant (p = .18). The proximal articular set angle and hallux abductus angle measurements, compared with metatarsal rotation, showed positive trends but were not statistically significant. From our results and a review of the published data, we have hypothesized that frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal is an integral component of hallux abducto valgus pathologic features, specifically in relation to the TSP and IMA.

Observed changes in first metatarsal and medial cuneiform positions after first metatarsophalangeal joint arthrodesis.

The first intermetatarsal angle (IMA) is known to decrease after first metatarsophalangeal joint arthrodesis, although the exact mechanism by which this decrease occurs is not known. We measured the first IMA and obliquity of the medial cuneiform on anteroposterior weightbearing preoperative and postoperative radiographs in 86 feet and analyzed the statistical correlation between the IMA and the medial cuneiform angle. A change in the first IMA after first metatarsophalangeal joint fusion showed a strong positive correlation with a change in cuneiform obliquity (p < .0001). This finding was consistent in the direction and magnitude in each of 3 clinical subgroups: normal, p = .087; moderate deformity, p = .011; and severe deformity, p = .10. A comparison of the preoperative IMA and cuneiform obliquity revealed a trend toward a positive relationship but did not reach statistical significance (p = .08). The preoperative association between the IMA and medial cuneiform obliquity was not significant in any clinical subgroup, and the postoperative association between the IMA and cuneiform obliquity was not significant (p = .65). Clinical subgroup analysis showed no significant association between the IMA and the normal (p = .73) and moderately (p = .69) deformed feet, although the postoperative association between the IMA and cuneiform obliquity in the severely deformed group was significantly (p = .034) positive. A linear relationship between the reduction of the first IMA and medial cuneiform obliquity after metatarsophalangeal joint fusion was observed. Our findings suggest that frontal plane rotation influences cuneiform obliquity.

Reduction of intermetatarsal angle after first metatarsophalangeal joint arthrodesis in patients with hallux valgus.

We present a radiographic review of 94 patients who underwent first metatarsophalangeal joint arthrodesis. The main focus of our review was to assess the change in the intermetatarsal angle (IMA). The change in the IMA was measured for the entire group and for 2 subgroups (IMA 11° to 15° and IMA >15°). The results of the angular measurements for the total data set were as follows: mean preoperative first IMA, 15.32° (range 11° to 24°), mean postoperative IMA, 9.88° (range 3° to 18°), and mean change in IMA of 5.44° (range -2° to 13°; p < .001). Group 1, with an IMA of 11° to 15°, included 52 patients, with a mean change in the IMA of 4.21° (range -2° to 9°; p < .001). Group 2, with an IMA greater than 15° (range 16° to 24°), included 42 patients, with a mean change in the IMA of 6.83° (range 2° to 13°; p < .001). The change in the preoperative to postoperative IMA in group 1 compared with that in group 2 was statistically significant (p < .001). The results of the present study have confirmed the observations of previous investigators that arthrodesis of the first metatarsophalangeal joint for hallux abducto valgus deformity results in a reduction of the IMA and that a proportionately larger reduction can be expected when the IMA is larger.

Clarification of the anatomic definition of the bunion deformity.

Evolution of the terminology applied to the bunion deformity has progressed in parallel with our changing understanding of the deformity itself. Along this path of progression have been multiple terms, sometimes with multiple meanings. Hallux valgus and metatarsus primus varus are 2 of the most common terms for the deformity. Although commonly used, these descriptors can have multiple meanings, and inconsistencies in interpretation can lead to confusion. We propose a more detailed terminology to provide a more accurate description of the entire bunion deformity in 3 planes and for both the hallux and the metatarsal component of the deformity. The term we propose is hallux abducto valgus with metatarsus primus adducto valgus. An accurate understanding of the multiplanar position of the deformed foot is important for planning deformity correction. The descriptors in the terminology proposed will keep in the forefront the aspects of correction required for the first ray and hallux to be returned to an anatomically correct position.

Principles of management of growth plate fractures in the foot and ankle.

Providers treating pediatric injuries must understand the properties of the pediatric skeleton and be sensitive to the psychological and social expectations of patients and their families. Immediate needs must be addressed, and the long-term prognosis must be explained. Detailed understanding of fracture mechanism and fracture patterns is essential for diagnosis and treatment. The provider must remain vigilant for changes in the osseous and soft tissue structures during treatment. Failure to recognize signs of growth interruption and changes in position may lead to functional abnormalities. This article presents an overview of pediatric growth plate injury management.

Effectiveness of a locking plate in preserving midcalcaneal length and positional outcome after Evans calcaneal osteotomy: a retrospective pilot study.

When using the Evans calcaneal osteotomy for repair of a calcaneovalgus deformity, lengthening of the lateral column of the foot is the method by which the procedure acts to correct the deformity. Therefore, maintaining the length is a priority. In our experience, substantial length is lost soon after surgery using the traditional nonfixated procedure. To test this hypothesis, a retrospective study was undertaken in which we compared the calcaneal length before and after the Evans procedures in 22 patients treated without fixation and 13 patients in whom the graft was fixated with a small locking plate to bridge the osteotomy and reduce the compressive forces on the graft. Within the first 10 days after surgery, the increase in calcaneal length from the preoperative length was 6.3 mm in the nonfixated group and 6.8 mm in the fixated group (p = .54 for the 0.5-mm difference). At 12 weeks after surgery, the mean amount of shortening from the value observed at 1 week was 2.45 (range 0 to 6) mm in the nonfixated group and 1.0 (range 0 to 3) mm in the internal fixation group (p = .48). Also, at 12 weeks, distal calcaneal migration or dorsal anterior calcaneal displacement of more than 3 mm occurred in 5 patients (23%) in the nonfixated group and 1 patient (8%) in the fixated group (p = .04). Our results suggest that locking plates do preserve the correction obtained with the Evans calcaneal osteotomy.

Does postoperative showering or bathing of a surgical site increase the incidence of infection? A systematic review of the literature.

Infection is one of the many postoperative complications a surgeon must attempt to control during the perioperative period. Surgeons have used a variety of modalities to prevent surgical site infection and have adhered to a variety of protocols. It has been common for foot and ankle surgeons to recommend that a patient keep the surgical incision covered and dry and to instruct the patient to avoid bathing and showering until the sutures have been removed. Surgeons have theorized that this will reduce contamination of the surgical site and help to prevent infection. We questioned the evidence basis for this practice and undertook a systematic review of electronic databases and other relevant sources regarding the incidence of infection when patients had been allowed to wet their surgical incision site by showering or bathing before suture removal. Nine studies involving 2150 patients met our inclusion criteria. No increased incidence of infection was found in the patients allowed to shower or bathe as a part of their normal daily hygiene before suture removal compared with those who were instructed to keep the site dry until suture removal.

Relationship of frontal plane rotation of first metatarsal to proximal articular set angle and hallux alignment in patients undergoing tarsometatarsal arthrodesis for hallux abducto valgus: a case series and critical review of the literature.

Rotation of the first metatarsal, as a component of hallux abducto valgus, is rarely discussed and is not addressed as a component of most hallux valgus corrective procedures. We believe frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal to be an integral component of hallux abducto valgus deformity (the "third plane of deformity") and believe de-rotation is necessary for complete deformity correction. We observed the change in angular measurements commonly used in the evaluation of hallux valgus deformity in patients who underwent a modified lapidus procedure. We measured the intermetatarsal angle, hallux abductus angle, proximal articular set angle, and tibial sesamoid position on weightbearing radiographs of 25 feet in 24 patients who had undergone tarsal metatarsal corrective arthrodesis and lateral capsular release. Specific attention was given to reduction of the frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal during correction. Our results showed a change in the angular measurements observed by 4 investigators as follows. The mean change in the intermetatarsal angle was 10.1° (p < .0001). The mean change in the hallux abductus angle was 17.8° (p < .0001). The mean change in the proximal articular set angle was 18.7° (p < .0001). The mean change in the tibial sesamoid position was 3.8 (p < .0001). Also, a consistent valgus, or everted position of the first metatarsal, was noted as a component of the hallux abducto valgus deformity in our patient population and was corrected by varus rotation or inversion of the metatarsal. We also reviewed the current literature related to anatomic changes in the first ray in the patient with hallux valgus deformity and reviewed our hypothesis regarding the reduction in the proximal articular set angle, which we believe to be related to frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal, resulting in a radiographic artifact.