COUP-TFI and COUP-TFII regulate expression of the NHE through a nuclear hormone responsive element with enhancer activity.

The chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factors (COUP-TFs) are orphan receptors involved in regulation of embryonic development and neuronal cell fate determination. We identified a target of COUP-TF involved in cell proliferation and cell differentiation. Using reporter assays, footprint analysis, and electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we showed that a nuclear hormone-responsive element located at -841/-800 nt of the mouse Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE) promoter binds COUP-TF with enhancer activity. Mutation at -829/-824 nt (and secondarily at -837/-833) prevents COUP binding and activation of the NHE promoter. In vivo expression of COUP isoforms in NIH 3T3 or CV1 cells transactivates from the nuclear hormone-responsive element and from the entire NHE1 promoter. Transactivation is greater for COUP-TFII, is increased for either COUP isoform by the presence of high serum concentrations, and is greatly reduced by mutations preventing COUP binding. In vivo COUP expression in NIH 3T3 cells results in increased synthesis of NHE. Expression of COUP-TFII induced by either retinoic acid or dimethyl sulfoxide in differentiating P19 cells increases NHE expression. The results show that COUP-TF regulates expression of the NHE and provide a mechanism that may be important in physiological and pathological situations linked to its upregulation.

The peroxisome proliferator response element of the gene encoding the peroxisomal beta-oxidation enzyme enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase is a target for constitutive androstane receptor beta/9-cis-retinoic acid receptor-mediated transactivation.

The genes encoding the first two enzymes of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway, acyl-CoA oxidase (AOx) and enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (HD), contain upstream cis-acting regulatory regions termed peroxisome proliferator response elements (PPRE). Transcription of these genes is mediated through the binding of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha), which binds to a PPRE as a heterodimer with the 9-cis-retinoic acid receptor (RXRalpha). Here we demonstrate that the HD-PPRE is also a target for the constitutive androstane receptor beta (CARbeta). In vitro binding analysis showed that CARbeta bound the HD-PPRE, but not the AOx-PPRE, as a heterodimer with RXRalpha. Binding of CARbeta/RXRalpha to the HD-PPRE occurred via determinants that overlap partially with those required for PPARalpha/RXRalpha binding. In vivo, CARbeta/RXRalpha activated transcription from an HD-PPRE luciferase reporter construct. Interestingly, CARbeta was shown to also modulate PPARalpha/RXRalpha-mediated transactivation in a response element-specific manner. In the presence of the peroxisome proliferator, Wy-14,643, CARbeta had no effect on PPARalpha/RXRalpha-mediated transactivation from the HD-PPRE but antagonized transactivation from the AOx-PPRE in both the presence and the absence of proliferator. Our results illustrate that transcription of the AOx and HD genes is differentially regulated by CARbeta and that the HD gene is a specific target for regulation by CARbeta. Overall, this study proposes a novel role for CARbeta in the regulation of peroxisomal beta-oxidation.

Regulation of Na+/H+ exchanger gene expression: mitogenic stimulation increases NHE1 promoter activity.

We examined factors important in regulation of expression of the Na+/H+ exchanger gene in NIH/3T3 cells. A stable fibroblast cell line was generated that contained a 1.1-kb proximal fragment of the mouse NHE1 promoter. The addition of serum to serum-starved cells resulted in an increase in activity of the NHE1 promoter. The mitogenic agonists insulin, thrombin, and epidermal growth factor also increased transcription from the NHE1 promoter. Phorbol esters also increased NHE1 promoter-directed transcription, whereas the serine/threonine protein kinase inhibitor 1-(5-isoquinolinylsulfonyl)-2-methylpiperazine inhibited this stimulation. The protein kinase inhibitors GF-109203X, PD-98059, and genistein all stimulated promoter activity. Promoter deletion analysis and gel mobility shift assays showed that a region between 0.9 and 1.1 kb from the start site was involved in mediating the effect of mitogenic stimulation. The results show that a variety of mitogenic factors can activate the NHE1 promoter during cell growth and proliferation.

Regulation and characterization of the Na+/H+ exchanger.

The Na+/H+ exchanger is a ubiquitous protein present in all mammalian cell types that functions to remove one intracellular H+ for one extracellular Na+. Several isoforms of the protein exist, which are referred to as NHE1 to NHE6 (for Na+/H+ exchanger one through six). The NHE1 protein was the first isoform cloned and studied in a variety of systems. This review summarizes recent papers on this protein, particularly those that have examined regulation of the protein and its expression and activity.

Regions flanking exon 1 regulate constitutive expression of the human antithrombin gene.

We have identified cis-acting elements and trans-acting factors that regulate constitutive expression of the human antithrombin gene. The activity of the sequences flanking the first exon of the gene was investigated using a luciferase-based reporter assay in transiently transfected HepG2, COS1, BSC40, and HeLa cells. Deletion analysis allowed the mapping of two elements able to promote antithrombin gene transcription in HepG2 and COS1 cells. The first element is located upstream of the first exon (-150/+68 nucleotides). The second element is in the first intervening sequence (+300/+700 nucleotides) and functions in an orientation opposite to that of the first. Footprint analysis showed three protected areas in the 5' upstream element at -92/-68 (element A), -14/+37 (element B), and -126/-100 nucleotides (element C). These elements acted as enhancers in luciferase reporter assays. Gel retardation analysis demonstrated that two liver-enriched transcription factors, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4) and CCAAT enhancer-binding protein (C/EBPa), bound to the 5' upstream element. HNF4 bound to elements A and C, whereas C/EBPa bound to element B. Element A also interacted with the ubiquitous nuclear hormone receptors chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor 1 (COUP-TF1), thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TRalpha), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha(PPARalpha), and retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRalpha). In HepG2 and BSC40 cells, HNF4, C/EBPalpha, and RXRalpha activated luciferase expression from a reporter construct containing the 5'-upstream minimal antithrombin gene promoter, while COUP-TF1, TRalpha, and HNF3 (alpha or beta) repressed such expression. Our results show that constitutive expression of the human antithrombin gene depends in part upon the interplay of these transcription factors and suggest that signaling pathways regulated by these factors can modulate antithrombin gene transcription.

An antithrombin III assay based on factor Xa inhibition provides a more reliable test to identify congenital antithrombin III deficiency than an assay based on thrombin inhibition.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether functional antithrombin III (AT-III) levels measured by a factor Xa inhibition (AT-III-Xa) assay identifies AT-III deficient individuals more reliably than functional AT-III levels measured by a thrombin inhibition (AT-III-IIa) assay. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. PATIENT POPULATION: Sixty-seven members of a large family with type 2 AT-III deficiency. INTERVENTION: DNA analysis was used as the reference diagnostic standard for AT-III status and subjects were classified as AT-III deficient or non deficient according to these results. Functional AT-III levels were measured in all subjects using: 1) a chromogenic substrate for thrombin and added human thrombin (AT-III-IIa), and 2) a chromogenic substrate for factor Xa and added bovine factor Xa (AT-III-Xa). Functional heparin cofactor II (HC-II) levels were measured using a commercially available kit. The proportions of 125I-alpha-thrombin complexed to AT-III and HC-II were measured by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. RESULTS: Thirty-one (46%) individuals were classified as AT-III deficient and 36 (54%) as AT-III non deficient. AT-III-Xa assay measured a significantly lower mean AT-III value and a narrower range for individuals classified as AT-III deficient than the AT-III-IIa assay. Using the AT-III-IIa assay, six subjects had borderline AT-III levels compared to none with the AT-III-Xa assay.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Molecular basis of inherited human antithrombin deficiency.

Figures 1 and 4 summarize the various AT mutations that have been described. The molecular elucidation, over the past decade, of the various AT deficiency types has provided important new insights into functional-structural relationships of AT. This knowledge, together with data provided by monoclonal antibodies and x-ray crystallographic studies of related molecules, has provided important new insights as to how the AT molecule functions in vivo. Finally, such knowledge might, in the foreseeable future, lead to the production of AT molecules that are specifically genetically engineered to be of use in a variety of clinical situations.

Partial deletion of an antithrombin III allele in a kindred with a type 1 deficiency.

This report details the precise mapping of a partially deleted human antithrombin III (AT-III) allele, found in a kindred with an inherited type 1 AT-III deficiency. Using truncated AT-III probes generated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification from a full-length AT-III cDNA, as well as other genomic probes specific for the 5' upstream region of the AT-III gene, we were able to characterize a partial deletion on an AT-III allele encompassing exons 1 and 2 of the AT-III gene, and a region 5' to the coding sequences. The absence of the 5' upstream region in the affected AT-III allele was confirmed directly by the PCR amplification of a 1.5-kb polymorphic fragment of genomic DNA samples from family members. The precise determination of the 5' breakpoint of the affected allele was made possible by two different approaches: (1) subcloning plus biotin capture PCR, or (2) inverse PCR. This allowed us to confirm the mapping of the deletion obtained by Southern analysis; to show that the 3' region of the mutant AT-III allele, including exons 3 to 7, was intact; and to sequence approximately 0.7 kb upstream to the breakpoint in the mutant allele. Furthermore, PCR amplification of the region of the breakpoint provided unique products detectable only in affected members of this kindred. The breakpoint in the partially deleted allele is 480 bp upstream from the 5' boundary of exon 3. No significant homology was found between the 0.7-kb sequence upstream to the breakpoint of the mutant allele and known human sequences.

Antithrombin-III-Stockholm: a codon 392 (Gly----Asp) mutation with normal heparin binding and impaired serine protease reactivity.

Antithrombin-III-Stockholm is a new structural variant of antithrombin-III (AT-III) with normal heparin affinity but defective serine protease inhibitory activity. The proposita, a white female born in 1966, was diagnosed to have developed a pulmonary embolus while on oral contraceptives at age 19. The proposita, as well as her father, were diagnosed to have a type 2 AT-III deficiency as they had normal levels of immunoreactive AT-III associated with decreased (approximately 60%) functional AT-III when measured with either alpha-thrombin or factor Xa as the substrate, either in the presence or absence of heparin. There was no evidence of abnormal electrophoretic mobility of AT-III from the proposita either in the presence or absence of heparin. Genomic DNA was prepared and all seven AT-III exons were polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified and sequenced in both directions using nested primers. Only exon 7 provided evidence for the presence of a mutation, with the second base of codon 392 having a G----A substitution. Such a mutation would cause the substitution of aspartic acid at the site of the normally appearing glycine in the translated product. Furthermore, this mutation caused the destruction of an Hae III restriction site at this point in the AT-III gene. The absence of this Hae III site was confirmed using restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of PCR-amplified material from the proposita. Experiments with AT-III from the proposita together with experiments with cell-free translated AT-III-Stockholm provided evidence that the mutant AT-III protein does not efficiently form a stable covalent inhibitory complex with alpha-thrombin, although it exhibits normal heparin affinity. The minimal thrombin-complexing ability of the mutant AT-III protein that was observed was accelerated by heparin, but to subnormal levels.

Antithrombin III-Amiens: a new family with an Arg47----Cys inherited variant of antithrombin III with impaired heparin cofactor activity.

A family with an antithrombin III variant (AT-III-Amiens) demonstrating abnormal heparin cofactor activity is described. Amplification and direct sequencing of genomic DNA by the polymerase chain reaction procedure permitted the identification of an Arg47----Cys mutation in exon 2 of the variant antithrombin III gene.

Expression in a cell-free system of normal and variant forms of human antithrombin III. Ability to bind heparin and react with alpha-thrombin.

Human antithrombin III (AT-III) cDNA was cloned into the cell-free expression phagemid vector pGEM-3Zf(+) and site-directed mutagenesis was used to remove nucleotides encoding the signal peptide. AT-III messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts derived from this construct were translated in an mRNA-dependent rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL) system containing (35S)methionine. Immunoprecipitation of the cell-free translation mixture with rabbit polyclonal antibodies to AT-III showed, by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), a 47-Kd polypeptide which is the non-glycosylated mature form of plasma AT-III. Densitometric scanning showed that this polypeptide constitutes greater than 90% of the radiolabeled polypeptides produced in this system. Heparin-Sepharose chromatography resulted in the elution of cell-free derived AT-III as a broad peak between 0.2 and 0.7 mol/L NaCl. The cell-free derived AT-III also reacted with human alpha-thrombin. In 2 minutes approximately 20% of the AT-III was found associated with a higher molecular weight species, consistent with the formation of a 1:1 stoichiometric covalent complex between alpha-thrombin and AT-III. Unfractionated heparin accelerated the rate of formation of such complexes. When Ser394 was mutated to Leu to form the AT-III Denver mutant, the cell-free translation product of this mutation did not show any significant complex formation when reacted with alpha-thrombin. A truncated form of AT-III (Met251-Lys432), containing only the putative thrombin-binding domain, was synthesized independently. This 21-Kd polypeptide did not bind heparin; however, it was cleaved by alpha-thrombin presumably at the reactive center Arg393-Ser394. When Ser394 was mutated to Leu the cell-free translation product of this truncated AT-III mutation did not react with alpha-thrombin at the reactive center. This simple cell-free approach, along with site-directed mutagenesis, should allow for the rapid and accurate mapping of the functional domains of human AT-III.

Incorporation of 7-deaza dGTP during the amplification step in the polymerase chain reaction procedure improves subsequent DNA sequencing.

An improved method for sequencing human genomic DNA amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedure is described. The portion of the genome investigated is the 383 nucleotide-long exon 2 of the human antithrombin III gene. Incorporation of the analogue of dGTP, 7-deaza-2'-deoxyguanosine-5'-triphosphate, during the amplification of exon 2 by PCR allowed for the elimination of recurrent artifacts obtained during sequencing of the amplified DNA by the dideoxyribonucleotide chain termination method.