PFKFB3 controls acinar IP3R-mediated Ca2+ overload to regulate acute pancreatitis severity.

Acute Pancreatitis (AP) is among the most common hospital gastrointestinal diagnosis; understanding the mechanisms underlying the severity of AP are critical for development of new treatment options for this disease. Here, we evaluate the biological function of phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3) in AP pathogenesis in two independent genetically engineered mouse models of AP. PFKFB3 is elevated in AP and severe AP (SAP) and knockout of Pfkfb3 abrogates the severity of alcoholic SAP (FAEE-SAP). Using a combination of genetic, pharmacological, and molecular studies we define the interaction of PFKFB3 with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) as a key event mediating this phenomenon. Further analysis demonstrated that the interaction between PFKFB3 and IP3R promotes FAEE-SAP severity by altering intracellular calcium homeostasis in acinar cells. Together our results support a PFKFB3-driven mechanism controlling AP pathobiology and define this enzyme as a therapeutic target to ameliorate the severity of this dismal condition.

Rutinosides-derived from Sarocladium strictum 6-O-α-rhamnosyl-ß-glucosidase show enhanced anti-tumoral activity in pancreatic cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Low targeting efficacy and high toxicity continue to be challenges in Oncology. A promising strategy is the glycosylation of chemotherapeutic agents to improve their pharmacodynamics and anti-tumoral activity. Herein, we provide evidence of a novel approach using diglycosidases from fungi of the Hypocreales order to obtain novel rutinose-conjugates therapeutic agents with enhanced anti-tumoral capacity. RESULTS: Screening for diglycosidase activity in twenty-eight strains of the genetically related genera Acremonium and Sarocladium identified 6-O-α-rhamnosyl-ß-glucosidase (αRßG) of Sarocladium strictum DMic 093557 as candidate enzyme for our studies. Biochemically characterization shows that αRßG has the ability to transglycosylate bulky OH-acceptors, including bioactive compounds. Interestingly, rutinoside-derivatives of phloroglucinol (PR) resorcinol (RR) and 4-methylumbelliferone (4MUR) displayed higher growth inhibitory activity on pancreatic cancer cells than the respective aglycones without significant affecting normal pancreatic epithelial cells. PR exhibited the highest efficacy with an IC50 of 0.89 mM, followed by RR with an IC50 of 1.67 mM, and 4MUR with an IC50 of 2.4 mM, whereas the respective aglycones displayed higher IC50 values: 4.69 mM for phloroglucinol, 5.90 mM for resorcinol, and 4.8 mM for 4-methylumbelliferone. Further, glycoconjugates significantly sensitized pancreatic cancer cells to the standard of care chemotherapy agent gemcitabine. CONCLUSIONS: αRßG from S. strictum transglycosylate-based approach to synthesize rutinosides represents a suitable option to enhance the anti-proliferative effect of bioactive compounds. This finding opens up new possibilities for developing more effective therapies for pancreatic cancer and other solid malignancies.

Reconstitution of human PDAC using primary cells reveals oncogenic transcriptomic features at tumor onset.

Animal studies have demonstrated the ability of pancreatic acinar cells to transform into pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, the tumorigenic potential of human pancreatic acinar cells remains under debate. To address this gap in knowledge, we expand sorted human acinar cells as 3D organoids and genetically modify them through introduction of common PDAC mutations. The acinar organoids undergo dramatic transcriptional alterations but maintain a recognizable DNA methylation signature. The transcriptomes of acinar organoids are similar to those of disease-specific cell populations. Oncogenic KRAS alone do not transform acinar organoids. However, acinar organoids can form PDAC in vivo after acquiring the four most common driver mutations of this disease. Similarly, sorted ductal cells carrying these genetic mutations can also form PDAC, thus experimentally proving that PDACs can originate from both human acinar and ductal cells. RNA-seq analysis reveal the transcriptional shift from normal acinar cells towards PDACs with enhanced proliferation, metabolic rewiring, down-regulation of MHC molecules, and alterations in the coagulation and complement cascade. By comparing PDAC-like cells with normal pancreas and PDAC samples, we identify a group of genes with elevated expression during early transformation which represent potential early diagnostic biomarkers.

Tumor Explants Elucidate a Cascade of Paracrine SHH, WNT, and VEGF Signals Driving Pancreatic Cancer Angiosuppression.

The sparse vascularity of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) presents a mystery: What prevents this aggressive malignancy from undergoing neoangiogenesis to counteract hypoxia and better support growth? An incidental finding from prior work on paracrine communication between malignant PDAC cells and fibroblasts revealed that inhibition of the Hedgehog (HH) pathway partially relieved angiosuppression, increasing tumor vascularity through unknown mechanisms. Initial efforts to study this phenotype were hindered by difficulties replicating the complex interactions of multiple cell types in vitro. Here we identify a cascade of paracrine signals between multiple cell types that act sequentially to suppress angiogenesis in PDAC. Malignant epithelial cells promote HH signaling in fibroblasts, leading to inhibition of noncanonical WNT signaling in fibroblasts and epithelial cells, thereby limiting VEGFR2-dependent activation of endothelial hypersprouting. This cascade was elucidated using human and murine PDAC explant models, which effectively retain the complex cellular interactions of native tumor tissues. SIGNIFICANCE: We present a key mechanism of tumor angiosuppression, a process that sculpts the physiologic, cellular, and metabolic environment of PDAC. We further present a computational and experimental framework for the dissection of complex signaling cascades that propagate among multiple cell types in the tissue environment. This article is featured in Selected Articles from This Issue, p. 201.

Ectopic expression of DOCK8 regulates lysosome-mediated pancreatic tumor cell invasion.

Amplified lysosome activity is a hallmark of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) orchestrated by oncogenic KRAS that mediates tumor growth and metastasis, though the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain unclear. Using comparative proteomics, we found that oncogenic KRAS significantly enriches levels of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8) on lysosomes. Surprisingly, DOCK8 is aberrantly expressed in a subset of PDAC, where it promotes cell invasion in vitro and in vivo. DOCK8 associates with lysosomes and regulates lysosomal morphology and motility, with loss of DOCK8 leading to increased lysosome size. DOCK8 promotes actin polymerization at the surface of lysosomes while also increasing the proteolytic activity of the lysosomal protease cathepsin B. Critically, depletion of DOCK8 significantly reduces cathepsin-dependent extracellular matrix degradation and impairs the invasive capacity of PDAC cells. These findings implicate ectopic expression of DOCK8 as a key driver of KRAS-driven lysosomal regulation and invasion in pancreatic cancer cells.

SUFU promotes GLI activity in a Hedgehog-independent manner in pancreatic cancer.

Aberrant activation of the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway, through which the GLI family of transcription factors (TF) is stimulated, is commonly observed in cancer cells. One well-established mechanism of this increased activity is through the inactivation of Suppressor of Fused (SUFU), a negative regulator of the Hh pathway. Relief from negative regulation by SUFU facilitates GLI activity and induction of target gene expression. Here, we demonstrate a novel role for SUFU as a promoter of GLI activity in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). In non-ciliated PDAC cells unresponsive to Smoothened agonism, SUFU overexpression increases GLI transcriptional activity. Conversely, knockdown (KD) of SUFU reduces the activity of GLI in PDAC cells. Through array PCR analysis of GLI target genes, we identified B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2) among the top candidates down-regulated by SUFU KD. We demonstrate that SUFU KD results in reduced PDAC cell viability, and overexpression of BCL2 partially rescues the effect of reduced cell viability by SUFU KD. Further analysis using as a model GLI1, a major TF activator of the GLI family in PDAC cells, shows the interaction of SUFU and GLI1 in the nucleus through previously characterized domains. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay shows the binding of both SUFU and GLI1 at the promoter of BCL2 in PDAC cells. Finally, we demonstrate that SUFU promotes GLI1 activity without affecting its protein stability. Through our findings, we propose a novel role of SUFU as a positive regulator of GLI1 in PDAC, adding a new mechanism of Hh/GLI signaling pathway regulation in cancer cells.

Phase II Trial of Trifluridine/Tipiracil Plus Irinotecan in Patients with Advanced, Refractory Biliary Tract Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: We sought to determine the safety and efficacy of trifluridine/tipiracil in combination with irinotecan in a phase II trial setting for refractory, advanced unresectable biliary tract carcinoma (BTC). METHODS: A total of 28 patients (27 were evaluable) with advanced BTCs who progressed on at least one prior systemic therapy were enrolled and were treated with trifluridine/tipiracil 25 mg/m2 (days 1-5 of 14-day cycle) and irinotecan 180 mg/m2 (day 1 of the 14-day cycle). The primary endpoint for the study was 16-week progression-free survival (PFS16) rate. Overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR), and safety were pre-specified secondary endpoints. RESULTS: Of 27 patients, PFS16 rate was 37% (10/27; 95% CI: 19%-58%), thereby meeting the criteria for success for the primary endpoint. The median PFS and OS of the entire cohort were 3.9 months (95% CI: 2.5-7.4) and 9.1 months (95% CI: 8.0-14.3), respectively. In the patients evaluable for tumor response (n = 20), the ORR and DCR were 10% and 50%, respectively. Twenty patients (74.1%) had at least one grade 3 or worse adverse event (AE), and 4 patients (14.8%) had grade 4 AEs. A total of 37% (n = 10/27) and 51.9% (n = 14/27) experienced dose reductions in trifluridine/tipiracil and irinotecan, respectively. Delay in therapy was noted in 56% of the patients while 1 patient discontinued the therapy, primarily due to hematologic AEs. CONCLUSION: The combination of trifluridine/tipiracil plus irinotecan is a potential treatment option for patients with advanced, refractory BTCs with good functional status and no targetable mutations. A larger randomized trial is needed to confirm these results. (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04072445).

Targeting BET Proteins Downregulates miR-33a To Promote Synergy with PIM Inhibitors in CMML.

PURPOSE: Preclinical studies in myeloid neoplasms have demonstrated efficacy of bromodomain and extra-terminal protein inhibitors (BETi). However, BETi demonstrates poor single-agent activity in clinical trials. Several studies suggest that combination with other anticancer inhibitors may enhance the efficacy of BETi. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: To nominate BETi combination therapies for myeloid neoplasms, we used a chemical screen with therapies currently in clinical cancer development and validated this screen using a panel of myeloid cell line, heterotopic cell line models, and patient-derived xenograft models of disease. We used standard protein and RNA assays to determine the mechanism responsible for synergy in our disease models. RESULTS: We identified PIM inhibitors (PIMi) as therapeutically synergistic with BETi in myeloid leukemia models. Mechanistically, we show that PIM kinase is increased after BETi treatment, and that PIM kinase upregulation is sufficient to induce persistence to BETi and sensitize cells to PIMi. Furthermore, we demonstrate that miR-33a downregulation is the underlying mechanism driving PIM1 upregulation. We also show that GM-CSF hypersensitivity, a hallmark of chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML), represents a molecular signature for sensitivity to combination therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Inhibition of PIM kinases is a potential novel strategy for overcoming BETi persistence in myeloid neoplasms. Our data support further clinical investigation of this combination.

Translational relevance of SOS1 targeting for KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer.

It has been challenging to target mutant KRAS (mKRAS) in colorectal cancer (CRC) and other malignancies. Recent efforts have focused on developing inhibitors blocking molecules essential for KRAS activity. In this regard, SOS1 inhibition has arisen as an attractive approach for mKRAS CRC given its essential role as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for this GTPase. Here, we demonstrated the translational value of SOS1 blockade in mKRAS CRC. We used CRC patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as preclinical models to evaluate their sensitivity to SOS1 inhibitor BI3406. A combination of in silico analyses and wet lab techniques was utilized to define potential predictive markers for SOS1 sensitivity and potential mechanisms of resistance in CRC. RNA-seq analysis of CRC PDOs revealed two groups of CRC PDOs with differential sensitivities to SOS1 inhibitor BI3406. The resistant group was enriched in gene sets involving cholesterol homeostasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and TNF-α/NFκB signaling. Expression analysis identified a significant correlation between SOS1 and SOS2 mRNA levels (Spearman's ρ 0.56, p < 0.001). SOS1/2 protein expression was universally present with heterogeneous patterns in CRC cells but only minimal to none in surrounding nonmalignant cells. Only SOS1 protein expression was associated with worse survival in patients with RAS/RAF mutant CRC (p = 0.04). We also found that SOS1/SOS2 protein expression ratio >1 by immunohistochemistry (p = 0.03) instead of KRAS mutation (p = 1) was a better predictive marker to BI3406 sensitivity of CRC PDOs, concordant with the significant positive correlation between SOS1/SOS2 protein expression ratio and SOS1 dependency. Finally, we showed that GTP-bound RAS level underwent rebound even in BI3406-sensitive PDOs with no change of KRAS downstream effector genes, thus suggesting upregulation of guanine nucleotide exchange factor as potential cellular adaptation mechanisms to SOS1 inhibition. Taken together, our results show that high SOS1/SOS2 protein expression ratio predicts sensitivity to SOS1 inhibition and support further clinical development of SOS1-targeting agents in CRC.

GLI1 interaction with p300 modulates SDF1 expression in cancer-associated fibroblasts to promote pancreatic cancer cells migration.

Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play an important role in the progression of multiple malignancies. Secretion of cytokines and growth factors underlies the pro-tumoral effect of CAFs. Although this paracrine function has been extensively documented, the molecular mechanisms controlling the expression of these factors remain elusive. In this study, we provide evidence of a novel CAF transcriptional axis regulating the expression of SDF1, a major driver of cancer cell migration, involving the transcription factor GLI1 and histone acetyltransferase p300. We demonstrate that conditioned media from CAFs overexpressing GLI1 induce the migration of pancreatic cancer cells, and this effect is impaired by an SDF1-neutralizing antibody. Using a combination of co-immunoprecipitation, proximity ligation assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay, we further demonstrate that GLI1 and p300 physically interact in CAFs to co-occupy and drive SDF1 promoter activity. Mapping experiments highlight the requirement of GLI1 N-terminal for the interaction with p300. Importantly, knockdowns of both GLI1 and p300 reduce SDF1 expression. Further analysis shows that knockdown of GLI1 decreases SDF1 promoter activity, p300 recruitment, and levels of its associated histone marks (H4ac, H3K27ac, and H3K14ac). Finally, we show that the integrity of two GLI binding sites in the SDF1 promoter is required for p300 recruitment. Our findings define a new role for the p300-GLI1 complex in the regulation of SDF1, providing new mechanistic insight into the molecular events controlling pancreatic cancer cells migration.

GLI1, a novel target of the ER stress regulator p97/VCP, promotes ATF6f-mediated activation of XBP1.

Upon accumulation of improperly folded proteins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) is triggered to restore ER homeostasis. The induction of stress genes is a sine qua non condition for effective adaptive UPR. Although this requirement has been extensively described, the mechanisms underlying this process remain in part uncharacterized. Here, we show that p97/VCP, an AAA+ ATPase known to contribute to ER stress-induced gene expression, regulates the transcription factor GLI1, a primary effector of Hedgehog (Hh) signaling. Under basal (non-ER stress) conditions, GLI1 is repressed by a p97/VCP-HDAC1 complex while upon ER stress GLI1 is induced through a mechanism requiring both USF2 binding and increase histone acetylation at its promoter. Interestingly, the induction of GLI1 was independent of ligand-regulated Hh signaling. Further analysis showed that GLI1 cooperates with ATF6f to induce promoter activity and expression of XBP1, a key transcription factor driving UPR. Overall, our work demonstrates a novel role for GLI1 in the regulation of ER stress gene expression and defines the interplay between p97/VCP, HDAC1 and USF2 as essential players in this process.

Understanding Suboptimal Response to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), as a novel class of anticancer therapy, can be more efficacious and less toxic than chemotherapy, but their clinical success is confined to certain tumor types. Elucidating their targets, mechanisms and scope of action, and potential synergism with chemotherapy and/or targeted therapies are critical to widen their clinical indications. Treatment response to an ICI targeting programmed death-1 (anti-PD-1) is sought to be understood here by conducting a preplanned correlative analysis of a phase II clinical trial in patients with small bowel adenocarcinoma (SBA). The cytolytic capacity of circulating immune cells in cancer patients using a novel ex vivo cytotoxicity assay is evaluated, and the utility of circulating biomarkers is investigated to predict and monitor the treatment effect of anti-PD-1. Baseline expression of Bim and NKG7 and upregulation of CX3CR1 in circulating T cells are associated with the clinical benefit of anti-PD-1 in patients with SBA. Overall, these findings suggest that the frequency and cytolytic capacity of circulating, effector immune cells may differentiate clinical response to ICIs, providing a strong rationale to support immune monitoring using patient peripheral blood.

Parallel functional annotation of cancer-associated missense mutations in histone methyltransferases.

Using exome sequencing for biomarker discovery and precision medicine requires connecting nucleotide-level variation with functional changes in encoded proteins. However, for functionally annotating the thousands of cancer-associated missense mutations, or variants of uncertain significance (VUS), purifying variant proteins for biochemical and functional analysis is cost-prohibitive and inefficient. We describe parallel functional annotation (PFA) of large numbers of VUS using small cultures and crude extracts in 96-well plates. Using members of a histone methyltransferase family, we demonstrate high-throughput structural and functional annotation of cancer-associated mutations. By combining functional annotation of paralogs, we discovered two phylogenetic and clustering parameters that improve the accuracy of sequence-based functional predictions to over 90%. Our results demonstrate the value of PFA for defining oncogenic/tumor suppressor functions of histone methyltransferases as well as enhancing the accuracy of sequence-based algorithms in predicting the effects of cancer-associated mutations.

Culture media composition influences patient-derived organoid ability to predict therapeutic responses in gastrointestinal cancers.

BACKGROUNDA patient-derived organoid (PDO) platform may serve as a promising tool for translational cancer research. In this study, we evaluated PDO's ability to predict clinical response to gastrointestinal (GI) cancers.METHODSWe generated PDOs from primary and metastatic lesions of patients with GI cancers, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, colorectal adenocarcinoma, and cholangiocarcinoma. We compared PDO response with the observed clinical response for donor patients to the same treatments.RESULTSWe report an approximately 80% concordance rate between PDO and donor tumor response. Importantly, we found a profound influence of culture media on PDO phenotype, where we showed a significant difference in response to standard-of-care chemotherapies, distinct morphologies, and transcriptomes between media within the same PDO cultures.CONCLUSIONWhile we demonstrate a high concordance rate between donor tumor and PDO, these studies also showed the important role of culture media when using PDOs to inform treatment selection and predict response across a spectrum of GI cancers.TRIAL REGISTRATIONNot applicable.FUNDINGThe Joan F. & Richard A. Abdoo Family Fund in Colorectal Cancer Research, GI Cancer program of the Mayo Clinic Cancer Center, Mayo Clinic SPORE in Pancreatic Cancer, Center of Individualized Medicine (Mayo Clinic), Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology (Mayo Clinic), Incyte Pharmaceuticals and Mayo Clinic Hepatobiliary SPORE, University of Minnesota-Mayo Clinic Partnership, and the Early Therapeutic program (Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic).

MLL1 inhibition reduces IgM levels in Waldenström macroglobulinemia.

Waldenström macroglobulinemia (WM) is a B cell lymphoma characterized by the overproduction of a monoclonal IgM antibody, a leading pathogenic feature of the disease. Current therapies are based on our knowledge at the signaling and genetic scale, but recent research has identified epigenetic dysregulation as one of the important dynamics in the biology of this disease. In this study, we found that Mixed-lineage leukemia 1 (MLL1) histone methyltransferase and its chromatin tethering partner Menin are upregulated in WM patients. KMT2A knockdown using short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and inhibition of MLL1 function using the menin-MLL1 inhibitor (MI-2) in WM cells resulted in a significant reduction in IgM levels without significantly impacting WM cell growth and survival. Further analysis identified MLL1 binding at multiple sites in the 5' Eµ enhancer of the immunoglobulin heavy (IGH) chain. We found increased histone 3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) enrichment at multiple MLL1 binding sites upon LPS stimulation, a known inducer of IgM. Finally, we found that disruption of Menin-MLL1 complex using the MI-2 inhibitor in tumor-bearing mice significantly reduced human IgM levels in mice sera. Taken together, these results identify MLL1 as a regulator of IgM and define MLL1 as a new therapeutic target for WM.

Patient-derived organoids, creating a new window of opportunities for pancreatic cancer patients.

Standard-of-care regimens for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) include a combination of chemotherapies, which are associated with toxicity and eventually tumor resistance. The lack of relevant tool to identify and evaluate new therapies in PDAC necessitates the search for a model, especially for cases with treatment resistance to standard of care. In the study from Peschke et al (2022), they describe a longitudinal platform to identify drug-induced vulnerabilities following standard-of-care chemotherapy treatment using patient-derived organoids (PDOs) providing an opportunity to predict therapeutic response and define new treatment vulnerability induced by standard of care. Previously, tumor resistance to chemotherapy has typically been described as selection for resistant tumor cell populations. However, Peschke et al (2022) demonstrated that PDAC cells seemed to acquire resistance not only through genetic changes, but also through modifications in cellular plasticity leading to gene expression and metabolism changes. Thus, the study supports this type of platform for the identification of new therapeutic targets following standard-of-care treatments in PDAC.

Oncogenic gene expression and epigenetic remodeling of cis-regulatory elements in ASXL1-mutant chronic myelomonocytic leukemia.

Myeloid neoplasms are clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorders driven by the sequential acquisition of recurrent genetic lesions. Truncating mutations in the chromatin remodeler ASXL1 (ASXL1MT) are associated with a high-risk disease phenotype with increased proliferation, epigenetic therapeutic resistance, and poor survival outcomes. We performed a multi-omics interrogation to define gene expression and chromatin remodeling associated with ASXL1MT in chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML). ASXL1MT are associated with a loss of repressive histone methylation and increase in permissive histone methylation and acetylation in promoter regions. ASXL1MT are further associated with de novo accessibility of distal enhancers binding ETS transcription factors, targeting important leukemogenic driver genes. Chromatin remodeling of promoters and enhancers is strongly associated with gene expression and heterogenous among overexpressed genes. These results provide a comprehensive map of the transcriptome and chromatin landscape of ASXL1MT CMML, forming an important framework for the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting oncogenic cis interactions.

Estrogen receptor beta repurposes EZH2 to suppress oncogenic NFκB/p65 signaling in triple negative breast cancer.

Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) accounts for 15-20% of all breast cancer cases, yet is responsible for a disproportionately high percentage of breast cancer mortalities. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets based on the molecular events driving TNBC pathobiology. Estrogen receptor beta (ERß) is known to elicit anti-cancer effects in TNBC, however its mechanisms of action remain elusive. Here, we report the expression profiles of ERß and its association with clinicopathological features and patient outcomes in the largest cohort of TNBC to date. In this cohort, ERß was expressed in approximately 18% of TNBCs, and expression of ERß was associated with favorable clinicopathological features, but correlated with different overall survival outcomes according to menopausal status. Mechanistically, ERß formed a co-repressor complex involving enhancer of zeste homologue 2/polycomb repressive complex 2 (EZH2/PRC2) that functioned to suppress oncogenic NFκB/RELA (p65) activity. Importantly, p65 was shown to be required for formation of this complex and for ERß-mediated suppression of TNBC. Our findings indicate that ERß+ tumors exhibit different characteristics compared to ERß- tumors and demonstrate that ERß functions as a molecular switch for EZH2, repurposing it for tumor suppressive activities and repression of oncogenic p65 signaling.