ABSTRACT
The order Phallales (Basidiomycota) is represented by gasteroid fungi with expanded and sequestrate basidiomata, known as stinkhorns and false truffles. In phalloids, the first DNA sequence was published in 1997, and after that, some studies aimed to resolve phylogenetic conflicts and propose new species based on DNA markers; however, the number of families and genera in the order still generates controversies among researchers. Thus, this work aims to provide an overview of Phallales diversity represented by selected DNA markers available in public databases. We retrieved Phallales sequences from DNA databases (GenBank and UNITE) of seven markers: ITS (internal transcribed spacer), nuc-LSU (nuclear large subunit rDNA), nuc-SSU (nuclear small subunit rDNA), mt-SSU (mitochondrial small subunit rDNA), ATP6 (ATPase subunit 6), RPB2 (nuclear protein-coding second largest subunit of RNA polymerase), and TEF1-α (translation elongation factor subunit 1α). To compose our final dataset, all ITS sequences retrieved were subjected to BLASTn searches to identify additional ITS sequences not classified as Phallales. Phylogenetic analyses based on Bayesian and maximum likelihood approaches using single and combined markers were conducted. All ITS sequences were clustered with a cutoff of 98% in order to maximize the number of species hypotheses. The geographic origin of sequences was retrieved, as well as additional information on species lifestyle and edibility. We obtained a total of 1,149 sequences, representing 664 individuals. Sequences of 41 individuals were unidentified at genus level and were assigned to five distinct families. We recognize seven families and 22 genera in Phallales, although the delimitation of some genera must be further revisited in order to recognize only monophyletic groups. Many inconsistencies in species identification are discussed, and the positioning of genera in each family is shown. The clustering revealed 118 species hypotheses, meaning that approximately 20% of all described species in Phallales have DNA sequences available. Information related to geographic distribution represents 462 individuals distributed in 46 countries on all continents, except Antarctica. Most genera are saprotrophic with only one putative ectomycorrhizal genus, and 2.1% of the legitimate specific names recognized in Phallales are confirmed edible species. Great progress in the molecular analyses of phalloids has already been made over these years, but it is still necessary to solve some taxonomic inconsistencies, mainly at genus level, and generate new data to expand knowledge of the group.
ABSTRACT
As hortaliças orgânicas são caracterizadas por um cultivo sem agrotóxicos e fertilizantes sintéticos. No entanto, o modo como esses vegetais são cultivados, com esterco bovino como adubo, aumenta a possibilidade de tornarem-se vias de transmissão de enteroparasitoses. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo detectar a ocorrência de estruturas parasitárias em hortaliças orgânicas comercializadas em feira livre no Município do Crato (CE). As hortaliças orgânicas foram coletadas na feira agroecológica Associação Cristã de Base ACB. Uma amostra de cada hortaliça (coentro, cebolinha e alface) foi coletada por banca (oito bancas, no total) e processadas utilizando a técnica Lutz, ou de Hoffmann, Pons e Janer ou método de sedimentação espontânea, com adaptações para estudo parasitológico em vegetais. Para cada amostra foram preparadas três lâminas e analisadas em microscópio óptico nas objetivas de 10X e 40X. Do total de amostras de hortaliças orgânicas analisadas 31,40% encontravam-se contaminadas pelas seguintes estruturas parasitárias: cistos de Giardia duodenalis, Balantidium coli, Entamoeba histolytica, E. coli, Iodamoeba butschlii, Endolimax nana; ovos de ancilostomídeos, Taenia sp. e Hymenolepis diminuta, larvas de ancilostomídeos e de Strongyloides stercoralis. O coentro foi a hortaliça mais contaminada, e o S. stercoralis foi o parasito mais frequente nas amostras de hortaliças, portanto, prevaleceram os helmintos. A contaminação encontrada nesse estudo sugere formas inadequadas de cultivo, higienização e manipulação das hortaliças, sendo inadequadas para o consumo segundo legislação em vigor. São necessárias campanhas eficazes de incentivo à higienização dos alimentos, mesmos os orgânicos, dito como "saudáveis", mas, que podem ser vias de transmissão de parasitos de enteroparasitoses.
The absence of agrochemicals and synthetic fertilizers characterize the vegetables as organic. However, the way these vegetables are cultivated using bovine manure as organic fertilizer increases the likelihood that these vegetables will become routes of transmission to humans of enteroparasitoses. In this context, the objective of this work was to detect the occurrence of parasitic structures in organic vegetables sold in a free market in the city of Crato (CE). The study was carried out with organic vegetables from the agroecological fair Associação Cristã de Base ACB. A sample of each vegetable (coriander, chives, and lettuce) was collected per stall (eight stalls, in total), processed using the Lutz or Hoffmann, Pons and Janer technique or spontaneous sedimentation technique with adaptations for parasitological study in vegetables. Three slides were prepared from each sample and analyzed under an optical microscope on 10X and 40X objective. In total organic vegetable samples analyzed, 31.40% were contaminated by the following parasitic structures: cysts of Giardia duodenalis, Balantidium coli, Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba coli, Iodamoeba butschlii, Endolimax nana; Eggs of hookworm, Taenia sp., Hymenolepis diminuta; Larvae of hookworm and Strongyloides stercoralis. Coriander was the most contaminated vegetable and S. stercoralis was the most frequent parasite in the vegetable samples, therefore, the helminths prevailed. The contamination presented in this study suggests inadequate forms of cultivation, hygiene and handling. Thus, the vegetables in desagree with the current food safety standards are inadequate for consumption. There is a need for effective campaigns to encourage food hygiene, even organic ones, which are said to be "healthy", but which may be the transmission routes for parasitic enteroparasitosis.
