Alternaria alternata transcription factor CmrA controls melanization and spore development.

Melanin is a black pigment widely distributed across the kingdoms, from bacterial to human. The filamentous fungus Alternaria alternata is a typical 'black fungus', which produces melanin in its hyphal and especially its asexual spore cell walls. Its biosynthesis follows the dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) pathway with 1,8-DHN as an intermediate. Two genes, encoding a polyketide synthase (pksA) and a 1,3,8-trihydroxynaphthalene (THN) reductase (brm2), along with a putative transcription factor, CmrA, comprise a small gene cluster. Here we show that CmrA controls the expression of pksA and brm2, but that it also controls the expression of a scytalone dehydratase encoding gene (brm1) located elsewhere in the genome. The regulatory function of CmrA was shown in a reporter assay system. Al. alternata CmrA was expressed in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans where it was able to induce the expression of a reporter construct under the control of the putative pksA promoter. This suggests direct binding of CmrA to the promoter of pksA in the heterologous system. Likewise, silencing of cmrA in Al. alternata led to white colonies due to the lack of melanin. In addition, hyphal diameter and spore morphology were changed in the mutant and the number of spores reduced. Silencing of brm2 and inhibition of melanin biosynthesis by tricyclazole largely phenocopied the effects of cmrA silencing, suggesting a novel regulatory function of melanin in morphogenetic pathways.

Role of the Alternaria alternata blue-light receptor LreA (white-collar 1) in spore formation and secondary metabolism.

Alternaria alternata is a filamentous fungus that causes considerable loss of crops of economically important feed and food worldwide. It produces more than 60 different secondary metabolites, among which alternariol (AOH) and altertoxin (ATX) are the most important mycotoxins. We found that mycotoxin production and spore formation are regulated by light in opposite ways. Whereas spore formation was largely decreased under light conditions, the production of AOH was stimulated 2- to 3-fold. ATX production was even strictly dependent on light. All light effects observed could be triggered by blue light, whereas red light had only a minor effect. Inhibition of spore formation by light was reversible after 1 day of incubation in the dark. We identified orthologues of genes encoding the Neurospora crassa blue-light-perceiving white-collar proteins, a cryptochrome, a phytochrome, and an opsin-related protein in the genome of A. alternata. Deletion of the white-collar 1 (WC-1) gene (lreA) resulted in derepression of spore formation in dark and in light. ATX formation was strongly induced in the dark in the lreA mutant, suggesting a repressing function of LreA, which appears to be released in the wild type after blue-light exposure. In addition, light induction of AOH formation was partially dependent on LreA, suggesting also an activating function. A. alternata ΔlreA was still able to partially respond to blue light, indicating the action of another blue-light receptor system.

Identification of a polyketide synthase required for alternariol (AOH) and alternariol-9-methyl ether (AME) formation in Alternaria alternata.

Alternaria alternata produces more than 60 secondary metabolites, among which alternariol (AOH) and alternariol-9-methyl ether (AME) are important mycotoxins. Whereas the toxicology of these two polyketide-based compounds has been studied, nothing is known about the genetics of their biosynthesis. One of the postulated core enzymes in the biosynthesis of AOH and AME is polyketide synthase (PKS). In a draft genome sequence of A. alternata we identified 10 putative PKS-encoding genes. The timing of the expression of two PKS genes, pksJ and pksH, correlated with the production of AOH and AME. The PksJ and PksH proteins are predicted to be 2222 and 2821 amino acids in length, respectively. They are both iterative type I reducing polyketide synthases. PksJ harbors a peroxisomal targeting sequence at the C-terminus, suggesting that the biosynthesis occurs at least partly in these organelles. In the vicinity of pksJ we found a transcriptional regulator, altR, involved in pksJ induction and a putative methyl transferase, possibly responsible for AME formation. Downregulation of pksJ and altR caused a large decrease of alternariol formation, suggesting that PksJ is the polyketide synthase required for the postulated Claisen condensations during the biosynthesis. No other enzymes appeared to be required. PksH downregulation affected pksJ expression and thus caused an indirect effect on AOH production.