Optimizing task-analysis instruction: Effects of descriptions and pictures of antecedent stimuli and outcomes.

Little research has examined specific instructional variables that influence the development and effectiveness of task-analysis instruction. We conducted two experiments using text-based task analyses to teach college students to create single-subject reversal design graphs. In Experiment 1, we tested the effects of presenting antecedent and outcome stimuli on graphing performance (accuracy, yield, time to completion). Different groups of participants experienced graphing tutorials with descriptions and pictures of (a) responses; (b) antecedent stimuli and responses; (c) responses and outcomes of correct responses; and (d) antecedent stimuli, responses, and outcomes. In Experiment 2, we compared tutorials with and without pictures. Collectively, the results suggest that graphing accuracy was positively affected by task analyses that included pictures and descriptions of antecedent stimuli and that adding outcome stimuli further benefited graphing accuracy. These results suggest critical instructional elements that should be included in future task analyses of graphing or other complex behavior chains.

The Establishment of Incidental Bidirectional Naming through Multiple Exemplar Instruction: a Systematic Replication.

Although many neurotypical children acquire untaught word-object relations incidentally from naturally occurring environmental experiences, many children with and without developmental disabilities require specific intervention. This study examined the effects of rotating listener (match and point) and speaker (tact and intraverbal-tact) responses with added echoics during multiple exemplar instruction (MEI) with training sets of stimuli on the acquisition of Incidental Bidirectional Naming (Inc-BiN). Listener-speaker MEI procedures reported in Hawkins et al. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 265-273, (2009) were replicated with procedural modification, new instructors, and new participants (four preschoolers with and without disabilities). The listener-speaker MEI with added echoics consisted of rotating across four response operants: match-with-echoics, point-with-echoics, tact, and intraverbal-tact responses. We measured the establishment of Inc-BiN through the number of the correct untaught listener (point) and untaught speaker (intraverbal-tact) responses for untaught stimuli during the listener-speaker MEI with added echoics. We found that listener-speaker MEI with added echoics was effective in establishing Inc-BiN for 3 of 4 participants.

A Component Analysis of Skill Acquisition Consequences with Listener Responses.

We conducted a component analysis of skill acquisition consequences for correct and incorrect responses. In the learn unit (LU) condition, researchers praised correct responses and implemented a correction procedure contingent on incorrect responses. In the praise-only-for-correct-responses (PC) condition, researchers delivered contingent praise for correct responses and ignored incorrect responses. In the correction-only-for-incorrect-responses (CI) condition, researchers ignored correct responses and implemented the correction procedure contingent on incorrect responses. We manipulated this independent variable across educational and abstract stimuli and measured acquisition rate, duration, and maintenance of responses. The results showed that the LU and the CI conditions were both effective in teaching listener responses and were more effective than the PC procedure. Furthermore, the LU instruction was not necessarily more efficient than the CI condition on acquisition of listener responses. The results suggested that the correction procedure may be necessary and sufficient for skill acquisition and maintenance.

A Comparison of Stimulus Set Sizes: Systematic Replication with Operant Analysis Acquisition Criteria.

We conducted a systematic replication of Kodak et al.'s Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(1), 265-283 (2020) and Vladescu et al.'s Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14(1), 193-197 (2021) experiments on the effects of stimulus set sizes on skill acquisition. The researchers manipulated the stimulus set sizes by teaching 3, 6, and 12 sight words simultaneously during learn unit instruction. Researchers taught participants until the participant's responding reached the acquisition criterion for 12 different sight words per set size condition. The acquisition criterion was set for an individual operant, whereby when accuracy met criterion for a single sight word, that sight word was replaced in the following session. The results showed that the set-size-3 was more efficient in producing criterion-level responding during acquisition than the set-size-6, and -12, which was consistent with Vladescu et al.'s findings. However, the set-size-12 reliably produced the highest maintenance levels for all participants. The definition of "effectiveness" based on acquisition or maintenance was discussed.

Verbal behavior development theory and relational frame theory: Reflecting on similarities and differences.

Relational frame theory and verbal behavior development theory are two behavior-analytic perspectives on human language and cognition. Despite sharing reliance on Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior, relational frame theory and verbal behavior development theory have largely been developed independently, with initial applications in clinical psychology and education/development, respectively. The overarching goal of the current paper is to provide an overview of both theories and explore points of contact that have been highlighted by conceptual developments in both fields. Verbal behavior development theory research has identified how behavioral developmental cusps make it possible for children to learn language incidentally. Recent developments in relational frame theory have outlined the dynamic variables involved across the levels and dimensions of arbitrarily applicable relational responding, and we argue for the concept of mutually entailed orienting as an act of human cooperation that drives arbitrarily applicable relational responding. Together these theories address early language development and children's incidental learning of names. We present broad similarities between the two approaches in the types of functional analyses they generate and discuss areas for future research.

Differential mastery criteria impact sight word acquisition and maintenance: Application to individual operants and teaching trial doses.

We compared the effects of different "mastery" criteria and doses on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words for 4 second graders with and without disabilities. First, we replicated Set Analysis and Operant Analysis conditions where participants were taught sight words in 20-trial (4 operants, 5 opportunities) sessions. Acquisition criteria were applied to a set of 4 operants or to individual operants, respectively. Second, we extended the literature by evaluating a lower dose of the Operant Analysis condition in a 12-trial session (4 operants, 3 opportunities). Thus, we compared 3 conditions-Set Analysis 5, Operant Analysis 5, and Operant Analysis 3. All participants acquired novel sight words fastest and required far fewer teaching trials to maintain each sight word under Operant Analysis 3 compared with Set Analysis 5 and Operant Analysis 5 conditions. Implications for arranging acquisition criteria and the interaction with trial-dosages are discussed.

A Rapid Assessment of Sensitivity to Reward Delays and Classwide Token Economy Savings for School-Aged Children.

Delay discounting tasks measure the relation between reinforcer delay and efficacy. The present study established the association between delay discounting and classroom behavior and introduced a brief measure quantifying sensitivity to reward delays for school-aged children. Study 1 reanalyzed data collected by Reed and Martens (J Appl Behav Anal 44(1):1-18, https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-1, 2011) and found that 1-month delay choices predicted student classroom behavior. Study 2 examined the utility of the 1-month delay indifference point in predicting saving and spending behavior of second-grade students using token economies with two different token production schedules. Collectively, results showed (a) the 1-month delay indifference point predicted classroom behavior, (b) children who discounted less and had greater self-regulation, accrued and saved more tokens, and (c) a variable token production schedule better correlated with discounting than a fixed schedule. Implications are discussed regarding utility of a rapid discounting assessment for applied use.

Units of analysis in acquisition-performance criteria for "mastery": A systematic replication.

This study compared 2 units of analysis for assessing acquisition mastery during sight word instruction for 3 participants. The unit of analysis refers to the specific performances that criteria are applied to, either sets of stimuli or individual operants. In the Set Analysis condition, we applied the acquisition-performance criterion to the aggregated accuracy of a set of 4 target operants. In the Operant Analysis (OA) condition, we assessed the criterion for individual operants and replaced targets as they met the acquisition criterion. All participants acquired novel textual responses to sight words faster under the OA condition and response maintenance was similar between conditions. This study extended previous research by showing enhanced response maintenance in the OA condition by increasing the performance criterion from 1 observation of 100% accuracy to 2. This study also suggests a unique contribution of OA to quickening learning.

Arranging peer-tutoring instruction to promote inference-making.

Peer-mediated instructional strategies (e.g., peer tutoring) have been effective at teaching academic responses in previous research. This study extended the literature by programming for inference-making, or derived relations. Across two experiments, researchers investigated the use of peer tutoring and inference-making to teach fraction-pictogram-percentage relations to 8 third-grade participants. In each experiment, participants served as both tutors and tutees in homogenous, reciprocal tutoring sessions. In Experiment 1, one tutor taught fraction (A)-pictogram (B) relations and the other tutor taught percentage (C)-pictogram (B) relations. In Experiment 2, each tutor taught one half of each of the relations. Results of both experiments demonstrated that the tutors learned all relations they taught, the tutees learned all relations they were taught, and all participants derived equivalence relations and demonstrated transfer of functions for comparative relations. A comparison of the two experiments suggests instructors should consider the difficulty of training relations when they design peer-tutoring instruction that engineers inference-making.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Token Economy Practices in K-5 Educational Settings, 2000 to 2019.

Token economy systems have been widely used as an evidence-based classroom management strategy to reinforce and improve prosocial responses. While token economies have been widely applied to educational settings, there have been mixed results regarding the effectiveness depending on the classroom type. To better understand the components contributing to the effectiveness, the researchers analyzed 24 token economy studies conducted in general and special education classrooms from kindergarten to fifth grade between 2000 and 2019. Eight token economy components and effect sizes were identified for each study and compared across different classroom types. The results showed that the token economy intervention yielded large effect sizes for both general and special education classroom types. There were differences in the usage of token components including backup reinforcer types, token production rate, and exchange production rate based on classroom types. Implications for future research and practice for educators and clinicians are discussed.

Effects of preliminary class membership on subsequent stimulus equivalence class formation.

The present study examined the effects of including stimuli previously trained as members of functional classes or equivalence classes on subsequent equivalence class formation, and isolated the effects of preliminary training from those of the acquired function stimuli. Fifty-six adults were assigned to 1 of 5 conditions. The control group (CONT) received no preliminary training prior to the terminal phase. Participants in the other 4 groups learned two 3-member functional classes and two 3-member equivalence classes during the preliminary phase. The terminal equivalence phase trained two 5-member classes (A → B → C → D → E) comprising abstract forms; the C stimuli in the terminal phase were (a) from the preliminary functional classes for 1 group (ACQ-F), (b) from the preliminary equivalence classes for the second experimental group (ACQ-E), (c) pictures of everyday objects for the picture control group (PIC), and (d) novel, unfamiliar stimuli for the preliminary training control group (PRE-CONT). Class formation yields were 100% in the PIC condition and 11% in the CONT condition; however, low yields in the PRE-CONT, ACQ-F, and ACQ-E conditions were unexpected, suggesting that procedural variables in preliminary training account for more of the subsequent effects on class formation than the stimulus control properties of the acquired function stimuli.

Generalized Verbal Behavior Increases Following a Speaker Immersion Intervention.

A goal of behavior-analytic interventions is to produce behavior that is maintained under naturalistic conditions. In this experiment, we studied the effects of a speaker immersion protocol (SIP) on the number of speaker responses (tacts and mands) emitted by 3 preschool students under naturalistic, not directly targeted, conditions. During the SIP, the researchers provided 100 daily opportunities for the participants to emit mands using the target mand form by contriving establishing operations (EOs) throughout the school day. The effects of the intervention were evaluated using a multiple-probe design by measuring target mands during EO probe sessions and the number of mands and tacts emitted during noninstructional-setting probe sessions. The researchers found that the SIP produced increases in both targeted and generalized verbal behavior.

Emergent Listener Fluency: A Replication.

Fluent listener behavior is a fundamental repertoire that affects the learning and development of speaker repertoires. We used a concurrent multiple-baseline design across 3 preschool-aged participants with disabilities to evaluate the effectiveness of a listener emersion protocol on increasing listener fluency. Prior to intervention, the participants demonstrated difficulty following vocal directions. The dependent variables were the rate per minute of correct and incorrect listener responses to vocal directions. The listener emersion protocol required participants to follow 4 sets of 5 one-step vocal directions. Results of this study indicate that listener fluency improved with an increased rate of correct responses across all 3 participants as a function of the listener emersion protocol.

Effects of Nonreciprocal Peer Tutoring With Preschool Students.

We investigated the effectiveness of nonreciprocal peer tutoring, a type of peer-mediated instructional intervention, with preschoolers. We used a multiple-probe design across 2 dyads with participants with and without disabilities. The dependent variables were the number of correct tact responses to the untaught stimuli for the tutor and the number of correct tact responses to taught stimuli for tutees. Results demonstrated that nonreciprocal peer tutoring was effective in the acquisition of untaught tacts for the tutors and directly taught tacts for the tutees.

Randomized controlled trial of a sibling support group: Mental health outcomes for siblings of children with autism.

LAY ABSTRACT: Typically developing siblings of a child with autism spectrum disorder may show mental health difficulties. A support group is one approach to help typically developing siblings. During support groups, typically developing siblings discuss their feelings, learn coping strategies and problem-solving skills, and develop a peer network. We compared a support group to participation in a similar group without a focus on the sibling with autism spectrum disorder. Some areas of mental health improved. Improvements were also impacted by autism spectrum disorder symptom severity in the sibling with autism spectrum disorder. Findings suggest continuing to examine how support groups can help typically developing siblings and for which siblings support groups might be particularly effective.

Presession attention affects the acquisition of tacts and intraverbals.

This study examined the effects of presession attention on the acquisition of tacts (Experiment 1) and intraverbals (Experiment 2) in children diagnosed with autism. Each participant experienced 3 conditions. In the first 2 conditions, participants experienced a 15-min interval of either presession attention (PA) or no presession attention (NPA) followed by a teaching session. The third condition was a control condition. Across experiments, all participants acquired the verbal operants assigned to the NPA condition, whereas only 4 of the 6 participants acquired the verbal operants assigned to the PA condition. Five of the 6 participants required fewer sessions to meet the mastery criterion and a shorter duration of training for the verbal operants assigned to the NPA condition as compared to the PA condition. These outcomes suggest that antecedent manipulations traditionally reserved for mand training can positively affect the acquisition of other verbal operants. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Correction to: Effects of a Contingency for Quiz Accuracy on Exam Scores.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s40617-018-0226-z.].

Effects of a Contingency for Quiz Accuracy on Exam Scores.

Completing frequent quizzes can improve exam scores; however, there is a lack of research on variables that influence quiz accuracy and whether there is an effect on exam scores. This study evaluated the effects of a contingency for quiz accuracy on quiz accuracy and exam performance. Eighty-one students enrolled in an introductory Learning course participated. For each class meeting and its related readings, the instructor assigned an online quiz due just before each class. During the no-contingency condition, the instructor assigned quizzes, but quiz accuracy did not result in points toward the final grade. During the accuracy-contingency condition, students earned points based on quiz accuracy. In a reversal design, the accuracy-contingency increased quiz accuracy and exam scores relative to no-contingency. Although many students benefited from the contingency, low-performing students were least likely to show a meaningful improvement in exam scores.

A Preliminary Analysis of Mastery Criterion Level: Effects on Response Maintenance.

Educators use a mastery criterion to evaluate skill acquisition programming for children with autism and other developmental disabilities; however, to the best of our knowledge, there has been no research evaluating how the mastery criterion level of accuracy affects the maintenance of those responses. This study investigated the effects of 3 skill acquisition mastery criterion levels (50%, 80%, and 90% accuracy) on response maintenance. Following mastery of a set of skills, maintenance was evaluated once a week for 3 to 4 weeks. Three elementary school-age children diagnosed with autism participated. Overall, the outcomes suggested that higher mastery criterion levels (90% correct) produced higher levels of maintenance responding. Additional research in this area is needed to clarify how different parameters of mastery criterion affect the generality of skills.

The Future of Verbal Behavior: Integration.

The future of verbal behavior research is integration. Different perspectives and research areas with their respective sets of jargon exist, which could lead one to believe in competing perspectives. However, a close inspection of various areas suggests overlap between those areas. Integrating research from across differing perspectives could result in a comprehensive understanding of verbal behavior.