ISR: background, evolution and implementation, with specific consideration for ligand-binding assays.

ISR was highlighted as a topic of major interest to the US FDA in 2006, having been previously required, then discontinued, by Canadian regulatory authorities. Following an FDA focus on ISR, this topic has also been emphasized by regulatory agencies in Europe, Asia and Latin America. Extensive discussions on proper implementation of programs have taken place in multiple settings, including pharmaceutical companies, regulatory agencies, professional associations and CROs. These efforts have led to recommendations for ISR conduct that are now included in a final guideline on bioanalytical method validation from the European Medicines Agency, a draft validation guidance from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare in Japan and a revised draft validation guidance from the FDA. In this Review we look at the background, evolution and implementation of ISR for all assays, while including some specific considerations on this topic for ligand-binding assays.

Some important considerations for validation of ligand-binding assays.

Calibration curves for ligand-binding assays (LBAs) are inherently non-linear and standard curve fitting algorithms require careful selection. Reference standards for macromolecule LBAs are more complex than are low-molecular-weight reference standards. Specificity of small molecule LBAs, and accuracy of reported study sample data are easier to assess by cross-validation with a chromatographic method than for macromolecule LBAs. Due to the lack of knowledge of the potential interference of unknown products of catabolism, proteolysis or biotransformation of macromolecules (particularly proteins) in LBAs for the parent molecule, the accuracy of reported concentrations and derived pharmacokinetic data for macromolecules, as determined by LBA, should be viewed with caution. In validation of LBAs, the total error and confidence interval approaches to assessment of the acceptability of an assay for routine implementation for the desired purpose should be given due consideration.

Appropriate calibration curve fitting in ligand binding assays.

Calibration curves for ligand binding assays are generally characterized by a nonlinear relationship between the mean response and the analyte concentration. Typically, the response exhibits a sigmoidal relationship with concentration. The currently accepted reference model for these calibration curves is the 4-parameter logistic (4-PL) model, which optimizes accuracy and precision over the maximum usable calibration range. Incorporation of weighting into the model requires additional effort but generally results in improved calibration curve performance. For calibration curves with some asymmetry, introduction of a fifth parameter (5-PL) may further improve the goodness of fit of the experimental data to the algorithm. Alternative models should be used with caution and with knowledge of the accuracy and precision performance of the model across the entire calibration range, but particularly at upper and lower analyte concentration areas, where the 4- and 5-PL algorithms generally outperform alternative models. Several assay design parameters, such as placement of calibrator concentrations across the selected range and assay layout on multiwell plates, should be considered, to enable optimal application of the 4- or 5-PL model. The fit of the experimental data to the model should be evaluated by assessment of agreement of nominal and model-predicted data for calibrators.

Bioanalytical method validation for macromolecules in support of pharmacokinetic studies.

The development and validation of ligand binding assays used in the support of pharmacokinetic studies has been the focus of various workshops and publications in recent years, all in an effort to establish a guidance document for standardization of these bioanalytical methods. This summary report of the workshop from 2003 focuses on the issues discussed in presentations and notes points of discussion and areas of consensus among the participants.

Disposition of a specific cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, valdecoxib, in human.

Valdecoxib is a potent and specific inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-2, which is used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and the dysmenorrhea pain. Eight male human subjects each received a single 50-mg oral dose of [(14)C]valdecoxib. Urine, feces, and blood samples were collected after administration of the radioactive dose. Most of the radioactivity in plasma was associated with valdecoxib and the hydroxylated metabolite of valdecoxib (M1). The estimated terminal half-life for valdecoxib was about 7 h. About 76.1% of the radioactive dose was recovered in urine and 18% of the radioactive dose was recovered in feces. Valdecoxib was extensively metabolized in human, and nine phase I metabolites were identified. The primary oxidative metabolic pathways of valdecoxib involved hydroxylation at either the methyl group to form M1 or N-hydroxylation at the sulfonamide moiety to form M2. Further oxidation of M1 led to the formation of several other phase I metabolites. Oxidative breakdown of the N-hydroxy sulfonamide function group in M2 led to the formation of corresponding sulfinic acid and sulfonic acid metabolites. The O-glucuronide conjugate of M1 and N-glucuronide conjugate of valdecoxib were the major urinary metabolites, which accounted for 23.3 and 19.5% of the total administered dose, respectively. The remaining urinary metabolites were glucuronide conjugates of other phase I metabolites. Only 3% of the administered dose was recovered in urine as unchanged parent, suggesting that renal clearance is insignificant for valdecoxib. Absorption of valdecoxib was excellent since the recovery of unchanged valdecoxib in feces was <1% of the administered dose.