Trends in Opioid Use Disorder Outpatient Treatment and Telehealth Utilization Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The authors examined trends in opioid use disorder treatment and in-person and telehealth modalities before and after COVID-19 pandemic onset among patients who had received treatment prepandemic. METHODS: The sample included 13,113 adults with commercial insurance or Medicare Advantage and receiving opioid use disorder treatment between March 2018 and February 2019. Trends in opioid use disorder outpatient treatment, treatment with medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD), and in-person and telehealth modalities were examined 1 year before pandemic onset and 2 years after (March 2019-February 2022). RESULTS: From March 2019 to February 2022, the proportion of patients with opioid use disorder outpatient and MOUD visits declined by 2.8 and 0.3 percentage points, respectively. Prepandemic, 98.6% of outpatient visits were in person; after pandemic onset, at least 34.9% of patients received outpatient care via telehealth. CONCLUSIONS: Disruptions in opioid use disorder outpatient and MOUD treatments were marginal during the pandemic, possibly because of increased telehealth utilization.

Evaluation of opioid use disorder treatment outcomes in patients receiving split daily versus once daily dosing of buprenorphine-naloxone.

INTRODUCTION: In clinical practice, sublingual (SL) buprenorphine-naloxone is prescribed as once daily or split daily dosing for the management of opioid use disorder (OUD). Evidence is lacking that assesses how split daily buprenorphine-naloxone affects OUD outcomes. This study aims to evaluate how the dosing frequency of SL buprenorphine-naloxone impacts therapy effectiveness when treating patients with OUD. METHODS: This retrospective analysis included adult outpatients prescribed treatment with SL buprenorphine-naloxone for OUD between July 1, 2016, and March 1, 2020. The study excluded patients with sickle cell disease, recent methadone treatment, or pregnancy. We characterized study groups by dosing frequency, either once daily or split dosing. The study compared retention in treatment, medication adherence, adherence to treatment program, and hospital encounters between groups. RESULTS: The study screened eight-hundred and seven patients, and included 250 patients newly prescribed SL buprenorphine-naloxone. Fifty-seven patients (22.8 %) were prescribed once daily dosing and 193 patients (77.2 %) were prescribed split daily dosing. The study found no significant differences noted in 12-month rates of treatment retention (52.6 % vs. 45.6 %, p = .35). These outcomes remained similar when assessed at three and six months. Within a year of buprenorphine-naloxone initiation, the study found no differences in the percentage of patients with hospitalizations (26.3 % vs. 38.3 %, p = .10), median number of hospitalizations (2 vs. 2), or proportion of days covered by a prescription ≥80 % (93.3 % vs. 92.0 %, p = .82). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, patients receiving once daily buprenorphine-naloxone had similar treatment outcomes to patients receiving split dosing. Further controlled studies are necessary to evaluate which patients are more likely to benefit from split dosing.

Long-Term Effects of Incentives for HIV Viral Suppression: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Achieving viral suppression in people living with HIV improves their quality of life and can help end the HIV/AIDS epidemic. However, few interventions have successfully promoted HIV viral suppression. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of financial incentives for viral suppression in people living with HIV. People living with a detectable HIV viral load (≥ 200 copies/mL) were randomly assigned to Usual Care (n = 50) or Incentive (n = 52) groups. Incentive participants earned up to $10 per day for providing blood samples with an undetectable or reduced viral load. During the 2-year intervention period, the percentage of blood samples with a suppressed viral load was significantly higher among Incentive participants (70%) than Usual Care participants (43%) (OR = 7.1, 95% CI 2.7 to 18.8, p < .001). This effect did not maintain after incentives were discontinued. These findings suggest that frequent delivery of large-magnitude financial incentives for viral suppression can produce large and long-lasting improvements in viral load in people living with HIV. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02363387.

Abstinence-contingent wage supplements for adults experiencing homelessness and alcohol use disorder: A randomized clinical trial.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of abstinence-contingent wage supplements in promoting alcohol abstinence and employment in adults experiencing homelessness and alcohol use disorder. A randomized clinical trial was conducted from 2019 to 2022. After a 1-month Induction period, 119 participants were randomly assigned to a Usual Care Control group (n = 57) or an Abstinence-Contingent Wage Supplement group (n = 62). Usual Care participants were offered counseling and referrals to employment and treatment programs. Abstinence-Contingent Wage Supplement participants could earn stipends for working with an employment specialist and wage supplements for working in a community job but had to maintain abstinence from alcohol as determined by transdermal alcohol concentration monitoring devices to maximize pay. Abstinence-Contingent Wage Supplement participants reported significantly higher rates of alcohol abstinence than Usual Care participants during the 6-month intervention (82.8% vs. 60.2% of months, OR = 3.4, 95% CI 1.8 to 6.3, p < .001). Abstinence-Contingent Wage Supplement participants were also significantly more likely to obtain employment (51.3% vs. 31.6% of months, OR = 2.6, 95% CI 1.5 to 4.4, p < .001) and live out of poverty (38.2% vs. 16.7% of months, OR = 3.7, 95% CI 2.0 to 7.1, p < .001) than Usual Care participants. These findings suggest that Abstinence-Contingent Wage Supplements can promote alcohol abstinence and employment in adults experiencing homelessness and alcohol use disorder. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03519009.

Pharmacotherapy of Opioid Use Disorder-Update and Current Challenges.

The incidence of opioid use disorder (OUD) and overdose deaths is rising yearly within the United States. Many cases are associated with illicitly manufactured fentanyl use. In addition to offering patients medications for OUD (methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone), the approach to this epidemic should involve increasing provider awareness and education about substance use disorders, expanding urine toxicology screens to test for fentanyl, and using low-threshold treatment approaches.

Buprenorphine treatment retention and comorbidities among patients with opioid use disorder in a primary care setting.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: More information is needed about comorbidities among patients receiving buprenorphine maintenance treatment and their relationship with retention. METHODS: Retrospective electronic health record data over a 5-year period from primary care patients receiving buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid use disorder were examined (N = 899). The present analysis determined the prevalence of comorbidities and examined associations with treatment retention as defined by cumulative duration of buprenorphine prescription. RESULTS: Tobacco use and comorbidities including hypertension were prevalent but did not predict retention according to survival analyses controlling for demographic characteristics. Retention was poorer among patients testing positive for cocaine (HR = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.09-1.74, p = .007) and patients with hepatitis C virus (HR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.01-1.37, p = .04). CONCLUSION AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: This study provides new knowledge of previously unexamined associations between comorbidities (e.g., hypertension) and buprenorphine treatment retention. The robust association between cocaine use and poorer buprenorphine retention serves to resolve prior conflicting data in the literature.

Effect of Exposure to Visual Campaigns and Narrative Vignettes on Addiction Stigma Among Health Care Professionals: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Stigma toward people with opioid use disorder (OUD) is pervasive in clinical settings, impeding delivery of high-quality care. To date, no study has evaluated the effect of different stigma-reduction messages or messengers among health care professionals. Objective: To evaluate the effect of OUD-related messages delivered by different messengers on stigma and attitudes toward people with OUD among health care professionals. Design, Setting, and Participants: This randomized clinical trial examined the effects of OUD-related messages delivered by a visual campaign alone or in combination with a written narrative vignette from the perspective of 1 of 3 messengers. Health care professionals in the US were recruited from 2 national online survey panels (Ipsos KnowledgePanel and SurveyHealthcareGlobus). A total of 1842 participants completed a web-based survey measuring stigma toward people with OUD from November 13 to 30, 2020. Interventions: Eight groups were exposed to 1 of 2 message frames. One frame (Words Matter) emphasized the harm of stigmatizing language, and the other (Medication Treatment Works) focused on the effectiveness of medications approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of OUD. Message frames were communicated through either a visual campaign alone or a visual campaign in combination with a written narrative vignette from the perspective of a simulated patient with OUD, a clinician, or a health care system administrator. Main Outcomes and Measures: Dimensions of stigma toward people with OUD were measured on 5-point Likert scales that included items about desire for social distance from people with OUD, perception of individual blame for OUD, perspective of OUD as a medical condition, and support for increased governmental spending on OUD treatment. The level of warmth felt toward people with OUD was measured by a feeling thermometer (range, 0-100 points). Results: Among 1842 participants, the mean (SD) age was 47 (13) years; 1324 participants (71.9%) were female, 145 (7.9%) were Hispanic, 140 (7.6%) were non-Hispanic Black, 1344 (73.0%) were non-Hispanic White, and 213 (11.6%) were of other non-Hispanic race (ie, individuals who did not self-report race as Black or White and did not self-report ethnicity as Hispanic). Compared with nonexposure, exposure to the combination of visual campaign and narrative vignette communicating the importance of nonstigmatizing language from the perspective of a patient with OUD was associated with a lower probability (difference, -16.8 percentage points, 95% CI, -26.1 to -7.4; P < .001) of unwillingness to have a person with OUD marry into the family (a measure of social distance preference) and a 7.2-point (95% CI, 3.2-11.1; P < .001) higher warmth rating. Participants exposed to the combined visual campaign and patient vignette about the value of medication treatment for OUD also had significantly lower levels of stigma compared with those in the nonexposed control group (eg, unwillingness to have a person with OUD as a neighbor: difference, -15.3 percentage points; 95% CI, -24.6 to -6.0; P = .001). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, messages about nonstigmatizing language and effective medication for OUD reduced stigma among health care professionals. Stigma-reduction efforts targeting health care professionals may improve health care system capacity to serve people with OUD. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05127707.

Studying how state health services delivery policies can mitigate the effects of disasters on drug addiction treatment and overdose: Protocol for a mixed-methods study.

BACKGROUND: The United States is experiencing a drug addiction and overdose crisis, made worse by the COVID-19 pandemic. Relative to other types of health services, addiction treatment and overdose prevention services are particularly vulnerable to disaster-related disruptions for multiple reasons including fragmentation from the general medical system and stigma, which may lead decisionmakers and providers to de-prioritize these services during disasters. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, U.S. states implemented multiple policies designed to mitigate disruptions to addiction treatment and overdose prevention services, for example policies expanding access to addiction treatment delivered via telehealth and policies designed to support continuity of naloxone distribution programs. There is limited evidence on the effects of these policies on addiction treatment and overdose. This evidence is needed to inform state policy design in future disasters, as well as to inform decisions regarding whether to sustain these policies post-pandemic. METHODS: The overall study uses a concurrent-embedded design. Aims 1-2 use difference-in-differences analyses of large-scale observational databases to examine how state policies designed to mitigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on health services delivery influenced addiction treatment delivery and overdose during the pandemic. Aim 3 uses a qualitative embedded multiple case study approach, in which we characterize local implementation of the state policies of interest; most public health disaster policies are enacted at the state level but implemented at the local level by healthcare systems and local public health authorities. DISCUSSION: Triangulation of results across methods will yield robust understanding of whether and how state disaster-response policies influenced drug addiction treatment and overdose during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results will inform policy enactment and implementation in future public health disasters. Results will also inform decisions about whether to sustain COVID-19 pandemic-related changes to policies governing delivery addiction and overdose prevention services long-term.

Remotely delivered incentives to promote buprenorphine treatment engagement in out-of-treatment adults with opioid use disorder.

BACKGROUND: Opioid overdose remains a leading cause of death. Office-based buprenorphine could expand access to treatment to the many opioid users who are not in treatment and who are at risk for opioid overdose. However, many people in need of buprenorphine treatment do not enroll in treatment. This randomized pilot trial evaluated efficacy of a remotely delivered incentive intervention in promoting engagement in buprenorphine treatment in out-of-treatment adults with opioid use disorder. METHODS: Participants (N = 41) were offered referrals to buprenorphine treatment and randomly assigned to Control or Incentive groups for 6 months. Incentive participants were offered incentives for enrolling in buprenorphine treatment, verified by providing documentation showing that they received a buprenorphine prescription, and providing videos taking daily buprenorphine doses. Participants used a smartphone application to record and submit a video of their buprenorphine prescription and daily buprenorphine administration. Incentive earnings were added remotely to reloadable credit cards. RESULTS: Incentive participants were significantly more likely to enroll in treatment compared to control participants (71.4 % versus 30.0 % of participants; OR [95 % CI]: 6.24 [1.46-26.72], p = .014). Few participants in either group adhered to buprenorphine treatment, and the two groups continued to use opioids, including fentanyl at high and comparable rates. The two groups did not differ in the percentage of urine samples that were positive for buprenorphine, opiates, fentanyl, or methadone at monthly assessments conducted during the 6-month intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Remotely delivered incentives can connect out-of-treatment adults with opioid use disorder to treatment, but additional supports are needed to promote buprenorphine adherence.

Smartphone-based incentives for promoting adherence to antiretroviral therapy: A randomized controlled trial.

Antiretroviral therapy can improve the lives of people living with HIV and reduce the rate of transmission. However, high levels of adherence are required. Some people living with HIV, including people who use drugs, are at elevated risk for non-adherence. Contingency management is a promising intervention for promoting adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Barriers to adoption of contingency management include lack of provider expertise and implementation effort. To address these barriers, a smartphone-based adherence intervention was developed. HIV + people with a substance use disorder were required to submit video selfies of medication consumption that met validity criteria. Monetary incentives were delivered to participants via reloadable debit cards, contingent upon a valid video. The intervention was evaluated in a small (n = 50) randomized controlled trial. Intervention participants submitted 75% of possible videos, and 81% of videos met validity criteria, indicating a high level of usability. Participants also rated the intervention as highly acceptable. Adherence was measured as the percent of participants who achieved a 95% adherence threshold, and also as the overall percent of days in which participants were adherent to their antiretroviral therapy. The former showed a significant effect for group, (p = .034) but this was not maintained when adjusting for stratification variables as covariates (p = .094). The latter measure showed a significant group × time interaction. Smartphone-based contingency management is a promising method for promoting adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Assessing the cost-benefit of the intervention and development of strategies for long-term adherence are priorities for future research.

Adapting a Low-threshold Buprenorphine Program for Vulnerable Populations During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: To examine patient characteristics and outcomes among opioid use disorder patients enrolled in low-threshold buprenorphine treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: This paper describes the adaptation of the Project Connections (PC) program, a low-threshold buprenorphine program in Baltimore, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper examines patient characteristics and initial outcomes of patients served during a rapid protocol shift to telehealth that allowed buprenorphine initiation without an in-person encounter following a state-mandated stay-at-home order. Patient characteristics were compared to a subsample of patients enrolled in the program before the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: In March 2020, there was a sharp increase in new enrollments to the PC program. A total of 143 patients completed an intake assessment between March and May 2020 and 140 began treatment with buprenorphine/naloxone. Those who completed an intake assessment were primarily male (68.5%), Black (83.2%), had a mean age of 43.2 years (SD = 11.7), and reported a mean of 17.0 years of opioid use (SD = 12.9). The majority of patients were unemployed (72.7%) and reported previous criminal justice involvement (69.2%). Of those who completed an intake assessment, 96.5% returned for a second visit. Among those for whom 30-day retention data was available (n = 113), 63.7% were engaged for 30 days or longer. CONCLUSIONS: The PC program illustrates that offering on-demand, flexible treatment is an opportunity to increase opioid use disorder treatment access, even during a public health emergency that disrupted access to services. Relaxation of buprenorphine telehealth regulations allowed for flexibility in treatment and benefits vulnerable populations.

Effects of incentives on viral suppression in people living with HIV who use cocaine or opiates.

BACKGROUND: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence is essential to maintenance of undetectable viral loads among people living with HIV, which improves health and reduces HIV transmission. Despite these benefits, some people living with HIV do not maintain the level of adherence required to sustain an undetectable viral load. This problem is particularly common among people who use drugs. OBJECTIVE: To determine effects of incentivizing viral suppression in people living with HIV who used cocaine or opiates. METHODS: In this secondary analysis of data collected during a randomized controlled trial, participants (N=102) with detectable HIV viral loads (>200 copies/mL) were randomly assigned to a Usual Care or Incentive group. Usual Care participants did not earn incentives for viral suppression. Incentive participants earned incentives ($10/day maximum) for providing blood samples with reduced or undetectable (<200 copies/mL) viral loads. All participants completed assessments every three months. Results collected during the first year were compared based on group assignment and drug use. RESULTS: Among participants who used cocaine or opiates, Incentive participants (n = 27) provided more (OR:4.0, CI:1.6-10.3, p = .004) blood samples with an undetectable viral load (69 %) than Usual Care participants (n = 25; 41 %). Among participants who did not use cocaine or opiates, Incentive participants (n = 25) provided more (OR:4.1, CI:1.5-10.7, p = .005) blood samples with an undetectable viral load (78 %) than Usual Care participants (n = 25; 36 %). Effects of incentives did not differ by drug use (OR:1.0, CI:0.3-4.0, p = .992). CONCLUSIONS: Incentivizing viral suppression can promote undetectable viral loads in people living with HIV who use cocaine or opiates.

Financial incentives promote engagement in employment services for unemployed adults in treatment for opioid use disorder.

BACKGROUND: Promoting employment among unemployed adults with substance use disorder is a difficult challenge for which existing interventions have had limited effects. This study examined whether financial incentives could increase engagement in employment services for unemployed adults in treatment for opioid use disorder. METHODS: The study was conducted from 2014 to 2019 in Baltimore, MD. After a 3-month abstinence initiation and training period, participants (N = 91) were randomly assigned to a Control group or an Incentive group and were invited to work with an employment specialist to seek employment in a community job for 12 months. Participants assigned to the Control group (n = 47) did not receive incentives for working with the employment specialist. Participants assigned to the Incentive group (n = 44) could earn financial incentives for working with the employment specialist, but had to provide opiate- and cocaine-negative urine samples to maximize pay. RESULTS: Incentive participants attended the employment services and worked with the employment specialist on significantly more days than Control participants (41.8 % versus 1.1 % of days; OR = 40.42, 95 % CI = 32.46-48.38, p < .001), and for significantly more hours than Control participants (3.58 versus 1.25 h, on average; OR=2.34, 95 % CI=1.83-2.85, p < .001). Incentive participants were more likely to be retained than Control participants when analyses were based solely on attendance (HR=0.12, 95 % CI=0.06-0.25, p < .001) and attendance and employment combined (HR=0.15, 95 % CI=0.07-0.31, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Financial incentives were effective in promoting engagement in employment services for individuals who often do not utilize employment services.

Effects of incentivizing viral suppression in previously incarcerated adults living with HIV.

Background: The amount of HIV in a person's blood can be suppressed to an undetectable level through antiretroviral therapy medications (ART). Adhering to an ART regimen can improve a person's health and reduce HIV transmission. Despite these benefits, many people with HIV do not maintain the level of adherence required to achieve an undetectable viral load. This problem is particularly common among people who have been incarcerated.Objective: To determine effects of incentivizing viral suppression in previously incarcerated adults with HIV.Methods: Adults with HIV (N = 102) and detectable viral load (>200 copies/mL) were randomly assigned to a Usual Care or Incentive group. Usual Care participants did not earn incentives for viral suppression. Incentive participants earned incentives ($10/day maximum) for providing blood samples with a reduced or undetectable (<200 copies/mL) viral load. Assessments were conducted every 3 months. Results collected during the first year were aggregated and compared based on group assignment and incarceration history.Results: Previously incarcerated participants in the Incentive group provided more (OR: 2.9; CI: 1.3-6.8; p <.05) blood samples with an undetectable viral load (69%) than those in the Usual Care group (41%). Never-incarcerated participants in the Incentive group provided more (OR: 6.8; CI: 2.2-21.0; p <.01) blood samples with an undetectable viral load (78%) than those in the Usual Care group (36%). Effects of incentives did not differ by incarceration history.Conclusions: Incentivizing viral suppression can increase viral suppression (undetectable viral load) in people who have been incarcerated.

Opioid agonist treatment and fatal overdose risk in a state-wide US population receiving opioid use disorder services.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Evidence from randomized controlled trials establishes that medication treatment with methadone and buprenorphine reduces opioid use and improves treatment retention. However, little is known about the role of such medications compared with non-medication treatments in mitigating overdose risk among US patient populations receiving treatment in usual care settings. This study compared overdose mortality among those in medication versus non-medication treatments in specialty care settings. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study using state-wide treatment data linked to death records. Survival analysis was used to analyze data in a time-to-event framework. SETTING: Services delivered by 757 providers in publicly funded out-patient specialty treatment programs in Maryland, USA between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2016. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 48 274 adults admitted to out-patient specialty treatment programs in 2015-16 for primary diagnosis of opioid use disorder. MEASUREMENTS: Main exposure was time in medication treatment (methadone/buprenorphine), time following medication treatment, time exposed to non-medication treatments and time following non-medication treatment. Main outcome was opioid overdose death during and after treatment. Hazard ratios were calculated using Cox proportional hazard regression. Propensity score weights were adjusted for patient information on sex, age, race, region of residence, marital and veteran status, employment, homelessness, primary opioid, mental health treatment, arrests and criminal justice referral. FINDINGS: The study population experienced 371 opioid overdose deaths. Periods in medication treatment were associated with substantially reduced hazard of opioid overdose death compared with periods in non-medication treatment [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) = 0.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.08-0.40]. Periods after discharge from non-medication treatment (aHR = 5.45, 95% CI = 2.80-9.53) and medication treatment (aHR = 5.85, 95% CI = 3.10-11.02) had similar and substantially elevated risks compared with periods in non-medication treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Among Maryland patients in specialty opioid treatment, periods in treatment are protective against overdose compared with periods out of care. Methadone and buprenorphine are associated with significantly lower overdose death compared with non-medication treatments during care but not after treatment is discontinued.

Abstinence-contingent wage supplements to promote drug abstinence and employment: a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Poverty, unemployment and substance abuse are inter-related problems. This study evaluated the effectiveness of abstinence-contingent wage supplements in promoting drug abstinence and employment in unemployed adults in outpatient treatment for opioid use disorder. METHODS: A randomised controlled trial was conducted in Baltimore, MD, from 2014 to 2019. After a 3-month abstinence initiation and training period, participants (n=91) were randomly assigned to a usual care control group that received employment services or to an abstinence-contingent wage supplement group that received employment services plus abstinence-contingent wage supplements. All participants were invited to work with an employment specialist to seek employment in a community job for 12 months. Abstinence-contingent wage supplement participants could earn training stipends for working with the employment specialist and wage supplements for working in a community job, but had to provide opiate and cocaine-negative urine samples to maximise pay. RESULTS: Abstinence-contingent wage supplement participants provided significantly more opiate and cocaine-negative urine samples than usual care control participants (65% vs 45%; OR=2.29, 95% CI 1.22 to 4.30, p=0.01) during the 12-month intervention. Abstinence-contingent wage supplement participants were significantly more likely to have obtained employment (59% vs 28%; OR=3.88, 95% CI 1.60 to 9.41, p=0.004) and lived out of poverty (61% vs 30%; OR=3.77, 95% CI 1.57 to 9.04, p=0.004) by the end of the 12-month intervention than usual care control participants. CONCLUSION: Abstinence-contingent wage supplements can promote drug abstinence and employment. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02487745.

More than just availability: Who has access and who administers take-home naloxone in Baltimore, MD.

BACKGROUND: Fatal opioid overdose is a pressing public health concern in the United States. Addressing barriers and augmenting facilitators to take-home naloxone (THN) access and administration could expand program reach in preventing fatal overdoses. METHODS: THN access (i.e., being prescribed or receiving THN) was assessed in a Baltimore, Maryland-based sample of 577 people who use opioids (PWUO) and had a history of injecting drugs. A sub-analysis examined correlates of THN administration among those with THN access and who witnessed an overdose (N = 345). Logistic generalized estimating equations with robust standard errors were used to identify facilitators and barriers to accessing and using THN. RESULTS: The majority of PWUO (66%) reported THN access. In the multivariable model, decreased THN access was associated with the fear that a person may become aggressive after being revived with THN (aOR: 0.55, 95% CI: 0.35-0.85), police threaten people at an overdose event (aOR: 0.68, 95% CI: 0.36-1.00), and insufficient overdose training (aOR: 0.43, 95% CI: 0.28-0.68). Enrollment in medication-assisted treatment, personally experiencing an overdose, and graduating from high school were associated with higher access. About half (49%) of PWUO with THN access and who had witnessed an overdose reported having administered THN. THN use was positively associated with "often" or "always" carrying THN (aOR: 3.47, 95% CI: 1.99-6.06), witnessing more overdoses (aOR:5.18, 95% CI: 2.22-12.07), experiencing recent homelessness, and injecting in the past year. THN use was reduced among participants who did not feel that they had sufficient overdose training (aOR: 0.56, 95% CI: 0.32-0.96). CONCLUSION: THN programs must bolster confidence in administering THN and address barriers to use, such as fear of a THN recipient becoming aggressive. Normative change around carrying THN is an important component in an overdose prevention strategy.

Coaching Primary Care Clinicians in the Ambulatory Setting: Direct Observation and Deliberate Practice.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Clinical coaching programs can improve clinician performance through feedback following direct observation and the promotion of reflection. This study assessed the feasibility and acceptability of a primary care coaching program applied in community-based practices. METHODS: Using a 31-item behavioral checklist that was iteratively revised, four faculty observed 18 community-based primary care clinicians (15 of whom were physicians) across 36 patient encounters. Each behavior was scored as a binary variable (observed or not observed). After watching them care for patients, each clinician participated in a focused feedback session to discuss strengths and areas for improvement. RESULTS: Behaviors observed with the highest frequency were: reflects compassion (100%), appears to enjoy caring for the patient (100%), leads and follows with open-ended questions (97%), and asks thoughtful and smart questions (95%). Areas for improvement were those behaviors done less commonly: apologizes for running behind schedule (18%), acknowledges computer and/or explains role in patient care (14%), and assesses understanding (teachback; 7%). Most clinicians agreed or strongly agreed that they would like to be coached again in the future (81%), and that the coaching feedback would help them become more effective in primary care practice (94%). Nearly all patients surveyed substantiated that it did not bother them to have another doctor in the room and that it is a good idea to offer coaching to clinicians to help them improve. CONCLUSIONS: Coaching busy primary care clinicians is feasible and a valued experience. Focusing on specific observable behaviors can identify clinicians' strengths and opportunities for improvement. Patients are pleased to learn that their clinicians are receiving coaching as part of their professional development.

Incentives for Viral Suppression in People Living with HIV: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

The HIV/AIDS epidemic can be eliminated if 73% of people living with HIV take antiretroviral medications and achieve undetectable viral loads. This study assessed the effects of financial incentives in suppressing viral load. People living with HIV with detectable viral loads (N = 102) were randomly assigned to Usual Care or Incentive groups. Incentive participants earned up to $10 per day for 2 years for providing blood samples that showed either reduced or undetectable viral loads. This report presents data on the 1st year after random assignment. Incentive participants provided more (adjusted OR = 15.6, CI 4.2-58.8, p < 0.001) blood samples at 3-month assessments with undetectable viral load (72.1%) than usual care control participants (39.0%). We collected most blood samples. The study showed that incentives can substantially increase undetectable viral loads in people living with HIV. Financial incentives for suppressed viral loads could contribute to the eradication of the HIV/AIDS epidemic.