Solving an Old Dogma: Is it an Arteriole or a Venule?

There are very few reliable methods in the literature to discern with certainty between cerebral arterioles and venules. Smooth muscle cells (SMC) and pericytes are present in both arterioles and venules, so immunocytochemistry for markers specific to intramural cells (IMC) is unreliable. This study employed transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and a canine brain to produce robust criteria for the correct identification of cerebral arterioles and venules based on lumen:vessel wall area, tested against the less accurate lumen diameter:vessel wall thickness. We first used morphology of IMC to identify two distinct groups of vessels; group 1 with morphology akin to venules and group 2 with morphology akin to arterioles. We then quantitatively assessed these vessels for lumen:vessel wall area ratio and lumen diameter:wall thickness ratio. After assessing 112 vessels, we show two distinct groups of vessels that can be separated using lumen:vessel wall area (group 1, 1.89 -10.96 vs. group 2, 0.27-1.57; p < 0.001) but not using lumen diameter:vessel wall thickness where a substantial overlap in ranges between groups occurred (group 1, 1.58-22.66 vs. group 2, 1.40-11.63). We, therefore, conclude that lumen:vessel wall area is a more sensitive and preferred method for distinguishing cerebral arterioles from venules. The significance of this study is wide, as cerebral small vessel disease is a key feature of vascular dementia and understanding the pathogenesis relies on correct identification of vessels.

The perivascular pathways for influx of cerebrospinal fluid are most efficient in the midbrain.

Although there are no conventional lymphatic vessels in the brain, fluid and solutes drain along basement membranes (BMs) of cerebral capillaries and arteries towards the subarachnoid space and cervical lymph nodes. Convective influx/glymphatic entry of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) into the brain parenchyma occurs along the pial-glial BMs of arteries. This project tested the hypotheses that pial-glial BM of arteries are thicker in the midbrain, allowing more glymphatic entry of CSF. The in vivo MRI and PET images were obtained from a 4.2-year-old dog, whereas the post-mortem electron microscopy was performed in a 12-year-old dog. We demonstrated a significant increase in the thickness of the pial-glial BM in the midbrain compared with the same BM in different regions of the brain and an increase in the convective influx of fluid from the subarachnoid space. These results are highly significant for the intrathecal drug delivery into the brain, indicating that the midbrain is better equipped for convective influx/glymphatic entry of the CSF.

The structure of the perivascular compartment in the old canine brain: a case study.

Dilatation of periarteriolar spaces in MRI of the ageing human brains occurs in white matter (WM), basal ganglia and midbrain but not in cerebral cortex. Perivenous collagenous occurs in periventricular but not in subcortical WM.Here we test the hypotheses that (a) the capacity for dilatation of periarteriolar spaces correlates with the anatomical distribution of leptomeningeal cells coating intracerebral arteries and (b) the regional development of perivenous collagenous in the WM correlates with the population of intramural cells in the walls of veins.The anatomical distribution of leptomeningeal and intramural cells related to cerebral blood vessels is best documented by electron microscopy, requiring perfusion-fixed tissue not available in human material. We therefore analysed perfusion-fixed brain from a 12-year-old Beagle dog as the canine brain represents the anatomical arrangement in the human brain. Results showed regional variation in the arrangement of leptomeningeal cells around blood vessels. Arterioles are enveloped by one complete layer of leptomeninges often with a second incomplete layer in the WM. Venules showed incomplete layers of leptomeningeal cells. Intramural cell expression was higher in the post-capillary venules of the subcortical WM when compared with periventricular WM, suggesting that periventricular collagenosis around venules may be due to a lower resistance in the venular walls. It appears that the regional variation in the capacity for dilatation of arteriolar perivascular spaces in the white WM may be related to the number of perivascular leptomeningeal cells surrounding vessels in different areas of the brain.

High-throughput high-volume nuclear imaging for preclinical in vivo compound screening§.

BACKGROUND: Preclinical single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/CT imaging studies are hampered by low throughput, hence are found typically within small volume feasibility studies. Here, imaging and image analysis procedures are presented that allow profiling of a large volume of radiolabelled compounds within a reasonably short total study time. Particular emphasis was put on quality control (QC) and on fast and unbiased image analysis. METHODS: 2-3 His-tagged proteins were simultaneously radiolabelled by 99mTc-tricarbonyl methodology and injected intravenously (20 nmol/kg; 100 MBq; n = 3) into patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mouse models. Whole-body SPECT/CT images of 3 mice simultaneously were acquired 1, 4, and 24 h post-injection, extended to 48 h and/or by 0-2 h dynamic SPECT for pre-selected compounds. Organ uptake was quantified by automated multi-atlas and manual segmentations. Data were plotted automatically, quality controlled and stored on a collaborative image management platform. Ex vivo uptake data were collected semi-automatically and analysis performed as for imaging data. RESULTS: >500 single animal SPECT images were acquired for 25 proteins over 5 weeks, eventually generating >3500 ROI and >1000 items of tissue data. SPECT/CT images clearly visualized uptake in tumour and other tissues even at 48 h post-injection. Intersubject uptake variability was typically 13% (coefficient of variation, COV). Imaging results correlated well with ex vivo data. CONCLUSIONS: The large data set of tumour, background and systemic uptake/clearance data from 75 mice for 25 compounds allows identification of compounds of interest. The number of animals required was reduced considerably by longitudinal imaging compared to dissection experiments. All experimental work and analyses were accomplished within 3 months expected to be compatible with drug development programmes. QC along all workflow steps, blinding of the imaging contract research organization to compound properties and automation provide confidence in the data set. Additional ex vivo data were useful as a control but could be omitted from future studies in the same centre. For even larger compound libraries, radiolabelling could be expedited and the number of imaging time points adapted to increase weekly throughput. Multi-atlas segmentation could be expanded via SPECT/MRI; however, this would require an MRI-compatible mouse hotel. Finally, analysis of nuclear images of radiopharmaceuticals in clinical trials may benefit from the automated analysis procedures developed.

Evaluation and comparison of a new DOTA and DTPA-bombesin agonist in vitro and in vivo in low and high GRPR expressing prostate and breast tumor models.

We evaluated and compared a new bombesin analog [Tyr-Gly5, Nle(14)]-BBN(6-14) conjugated to DOTA or DTPA and radiolabeled with In-111 in low and high GRPR expressing tumor models. Both peptides were radiolabeled with high radiochemical purity and specific activity. In vitro assays on T-47D, LNCaP and PC-3 cells showed that the affinity of peptides is similar and a higher binding and internalization of DOTA-peptide to PC-3 cells was observed. Both peptides could target PC-3 and LNCaP tumors in vivo and both tumor types could be visualized by microSPECT/CT.

Ambient visual information confers a context-specific, long-term benefit on memory for haptic scenes.

We investigated the effects of indirect, ambient visual information on haptic spatial memory. Using touch only, participants first learned an array of objects arranged in a scene and were subsequently tested on their recognition of that scene which was always hidden from view. During haptic scene exploration, participants could either see the surrounding room or were blindfolded. We found a benefit in haptic memory performance only when ambient visual information was available in the early stages of the task but not when participants were initially blindfolded. Specifically, when ambient visual information was available a benefit on performance was found in a subsequent block of trials during which the participant was blindfolded (Experiment 1), and persisted over a delay of one week (Experiment 2). However, we found that the benefit for ambient visual information did not transfer to a novel environment (Experiment 3). In Experiment 4 we further investigated the nature of the visual information that improved haptic memory and found that geometric information about a surrounding (virtual) room rather than isolated object landmarks, facilitated haptic scene memory. Our results suggest that vision improves haptic memory for scenes by providing an environment-centred, allocentric reference frame for representing object location through touch.

Targeted delivery of cytokine therapy to rheumatoid tissue by a synovial targeting peptide.

OBJECTIVES: The synovial endothelium targeting peptide (SyETP) CKSTHDRLC has been identified previously and was shown to preferentially localise to synovial xenografts in the human/severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mouse chimera model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The objective of the current work was to generate SyETP-anti-inflammatory-cytokine fusion proteins that would deliver bioactive cytokines specifically to human synovial tissue. METHODS: Fusion proteins consisting of human interleukin (IL)-4 linked via a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-cleavable sequence to multiple copies of either SyETP or scrambled control peptide were expressed in insect cells, purified by Ni-chelate chromatography and bioactivity tested in vitro. The ability of SyETP to retain bioactive cytokine in synovial but not control skin xenografts in SCID mice was determined by in vivo imaging using nano-single-photon emission computed tomography-computed tomography (nano-SPECT-CT) and measuring signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) phosphorylation in synovial grafts following intravenous administration of the fusion protein. RESULTS: In vitro assays confirmed that IL-4 and the MMP-cleavable sequence were functional. IL-4-SyETP augmented production of IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) by fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) stimulated with IL-1ß  in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo imaging showed that IL-4-SyETP was retained in synovial but not in skin tissue grafts and the period of retention was significantly enhanced through increasing the number of SyETP copies from one to three. Finally, retention correlated with increased bioactivity of the cytokine as quantified by STAT6 phosphorylation in synovial grafts. CONCLUSIONS: The present work demonstrates that SyETP specifically delivers fused IL-4 to human rheumatoid synovium transplanted into SCID mice, thus providing a proof of concept for peptide-targeted tissue-specific immunotherapy in RA. This technology is potentially applicable to other biological treatments providing enhanced potency to inflammatory sites and reducing systemic toxicity.

Development of a novel recombinant biotherapeutic with applications in targeted therapy of human arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: To isolate recombinant antibodies with specificity for human arthritic synovium and to develop targeting reagents with joint-specific delivery capacity for therapeutic and/or diagnostic applications. METHODS: In vivo single-chain Fv (scFv) antibody phage display screening using a human synovial xenograft model was used to isolate antibodies specific to the microvasculature of human arthritic synovium. Single-chain Fv antibody tissue-specific reactivity was assessed by immunostaining of synovial tissues from normal controls and from patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, normal human tissue arrays, and tissues from other patients with inflammatory diseases displaying neovasculogenesis. In vivo scFv antibody tissue-specific targeting capacity was examined in the human synovial xenograft model using both (125)I-labeled and biotinylated antibody. RESULTS: We isolated a novel recombinant human antibody, scFv A7, with specificity for the microvasculature of human arthritic synovium. We showed that in vivo, this antibody could efficiently target human synovial microvasculature in SCID mice transplanted with human arthritic synovial xenografts. Our results demonstrated that scFv A7 antibody had no reactivity with the microvasculature or with other cellular components found in a comprehensive range of normal human tissues including normal human synovium. Further, we showed that the reactivity of the scFv A7 antibody was not a common feature of neovasculogenesis associated with chronic inflammatory conditions. CONCLUSION: Here we report for the first time the identification of an scFv antibody, A7, that specifically recognizes an epitope expressed in the microvasculature of human arthritic synovium and that has the potential to be developed as a joint-specific pharmaceutical.

Quantitative Accuracy of Low-Count SPECT Imaging in Phantom and In Vivo Mouse Studies.

We investigated the accuracy of a single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) system in quantifying a wide range of radioactivity concentrations using different scan times in both phantom and animal models. A phantom containing various amounts of In-111 or Tc-99m was imaged until the activity had decayed close to background levels. Scans were acquired for different durations, employing different collimator pinhole sizes. VOI analysis was performed to quantify uptake in the images and the values compared to the true activity. The phantom results were then validated in tumour-bearing mice. The use of an appropriate calibration phantom and disabling of a background subtraction feature meant that absolute errors were within 12% of the true activity. Furthermore, a comparison of in vivo imaging and biodistribution studies in mice showed a correlation of 0.99 for activities over the 200 kBq to 5 MBq range. We conclude that the quantitative information provided by the NanoSPECT camera is accurate and allows replacement of dissection studies for assessment of radiotracer biodistribution in mouse models.

Filled and glycosylated carbon nanotubes for in vivo radioemitter localization and imaging.

Functionalization of nanomaterials for precise biomedical function is an emerging trend in nanotechnology. Carbon nanotubes are attractive as multifunctional carrier systems because payload can be encapsulated in internal space whilst outer surfaces can be chemically modified. Yet, despite potential as drug delivery systems and radiotracers, such filled-and-functionalized carbon nanotubes have not been previously investigated in vivo. Here we report covalent functionalization of radionuclide-filled single-walled carbon nanotubes and their use as radioprobes. Metal halides, including Na(125)I, were sealed inside single-walled carbon nanotubes to create high-density radioemitting crystals and then surfaces of these filled-sealed nanotubes were covalently modified with biantennary carbohydrates, improving dispersibility and biocompatibility. Intravenous administration of Na(125)I-filled glyco-single-walled carbon nanotubes in mice was tracked in vivo using single-photon emission computed tomography. Specific tissue accumulation (here lung) coupled with high in vivo stability prevented leakage of radionuclide to high-affinity organs (thyroid/stomach) or excretion, and resulted in ultrasensitive imaging and delivery of unprecedented radiodose density. Nanoencapsulation of iodide within single-walled carbon nanotubes enabled its biodistribution to be completely redirected from tissue with innate affinity (thyroid) to lung. Surface functionalization of (125)I-filled single-walled carbon nanotubes offers versatility towards modulation of biodistribution of these radioemitting crystals in a manner determined by the capsule that delivers them. We envisage that organ-specific therapeutics and diagnostics can be developed on the basis of the nanocapsule model described here.

188Re(CO)3-dipicolylamine-alendronate: a new bisphosphonate conjugate for the radiotherapy of bone metastases.

The palliation of pain due to bone metastases using targeted compounds containing beta-emitters such as rhenium-188 ((188)Re) is an accepted and effective form of treatment. Here, we describe the efficient synthesis and preclinical evaluation of (188)Re(CO)(3)-dipicolylamine(DPA)-alendronate, a novel bifunctional bisphosphonate for the palliative treatment of bone metastases. (188)Re(CO)(3)-DPA-alendronate can be easily synthesized with high specific activities and yields (18.8 GBq/mg, radiochemical yield > or =96%) in two steps using kit-based methodology, and in contrast with the clinically approved bisphosphonate (186/188)Re-HEDP, it forms inert, single species that have been well-characterized. In vivo imaging and biodistribution studies demonstrate that (188)Re(CO)(3)-DPA-alendronate is superior to (188)Re-HEDP in targeting and accumulating in areas of high metabolic bone activity while having low soft-tissue uptake. In addition to these studies, a simple and convenient new method for purifying its precursor, fac-[(188)Re(CO)(3)(H(2)O)(3)](+), is described.

Insertion of a lysosomal enzyme cleavage site into the sequence of a radiolabeled neuropeptide influences cell trafficking in vitro and in vivo.

Radiolabeled neuropeptides are widely explored for targeting tumours for either imaging or radiotherapeutic purposes. After binding to their receptors, these peptides are rapidly internalized into lysosomes, where they are degraded by proteolytic enzymes, such as cathepsins. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the inclusion of specific cleavage sites for cathepsin B into the peptide sequence. The cleavage site, GFLG, together with a series of dipeptides for pharmacokinetic modification of radiometabolites, were, therefore, inserted into a peptide that binds to the gastrin/CCK2 receptor. The receptor binding of the peptides was explored in AR42J cells, rates of internalization, and externalization of the radionuclide were measured and the nature of the radiometabolites explored. The effects of the modifications on biodistribution in tumor-bearing mice was explored by high-resolution single-photon emission computed tomography imaging. Differences in rates of externalization from tumor cells in vitro and in the rates of washout from tumor and kidney in vivo were observed. These results indicate that insertion of an enzymatic cleavage site, such as that for cathepsin B, into a neuropeptide appears to have an influence on the intracellular processing, which results in a change in the rate of egress of radioactivity from target and nontarget tissues.

Targeting of CCK-2 receptor-expressing tumors using a radiolabeled divalent gastrin peptide.

UNLABELLED: Gastrin/cholecystokinin subtype 2 receptors (CCK-2Rs) are overexpressed in several tumor types and are, thus, a potential target for peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) of cancer. To improve the in vivo performance of CCK-2R binding peptides, we have previously synthesized and screened a series of divalent gastrin peptides for improved biochemical and biologic characteristics. In this study, we explore in more detail the most promising of these compounds and compare its performance with a previously described monomeric peptide. METHODS: From six (111)In-labeled 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N',N'',N'''-tetraacetic acid (DOTA)-conjugated divalent gastrin peptides based on the C-terminal sequence of minigastrin, the maleimide-linked compound DOTA-GSC(succinimidopropionyl-EAYGWNleDF-NH(2))-EAYGWNleDF-NH(2) (MGD5) was selected. The in vitro stability, receptor binding, and internalization of (111)In-MGD5 were studied and compared with those of monomer compound (111)In-APH070. In vivo biodistribution and imaging using a SPECT/CT camera were also performed. RESULTS: More than 90% of the labeled divalent peptide remained intact after 20 h of incubation in plasma. The inhibitory concentration of 50% of the divalent peptide was 1.0 versus 5.6 nM for the monomer, and the dissociation constant was 0.7 versus 2.9 nM. The rate of internalization of the divalent peptide was twice that of the monomer. Tumor uptake of the divalent peptide in vivo was about 6 times that of the monomer. The rate of washout of the divalent peptide from the tumor was lower than that of the monomer. CONCLUSION: Dimerization of the CCK-2R binding site results in an increase in binding affinity and an increase in tumor uptake both in vitro and in vivo. It is likely that these increases would result in improved tumor-targeting efficiency in patients with CCK-2R-positive tumors.

99mTc-HYNIC-Gastrin Peptides: Assisted Coordination of 99mTc by Amino Acid Side Chains Results in Improved Performance Both In Vitro and In Vivo.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to determine the effects of assisted coordination by amino acids such as histidine and glutamic acid on the function of (99m)Tc-labeled gastrin peptide-hydrazinonicotinamide (HYNIC) conjugates and their ability to target cholecystokinin-R in small-animal models. METHODS: Three peptide-HYNIC conjugates containing the -AYGWMDF-NH2 C-terminal sequence and combinations of histidine, glutamic acid, and glycine were synthesized, radiolabeled with (99m)Tc/(99)Tc using either tricine or ethylenediaminediacetic acid as a coligand, and analyzed by the high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric techniques. Stability, receptor binding, and internalization and in vivo targeting in AR42J-bearing mice were assessed. RESULTS: When radiolabeling was performed using tricine as a coligand, the insertion of a histidine residue near the HYNIC residue resulted in the displacement of one molecule of tricine from the coordination sphere, a reduction in the number of radiolabeled species formed, an improvement in the in vitro stability, an increase in the rate of radiopeptide internalization, and a significant improvement in tumor uptake in vivo. When radiolabeling was performed using ethylenediaminediacetic acid as a coligand, no effect on coligand binding, homogeneity, or in vitro stability was observed but a significant improvement in the internalization in vitro and tumor uptake in vivo was again found. All of the complexes formed showed similar receptor affinity in competitive radioligand binding assays. CONCLUSION: The insertion of histidine into the sequence of peptide-HYNIC conjugates can result in more stable, more homogeneous complexes that show improvements in tumor-targeting performance both in vitro and in vivo.

Recombinant human VEGF165b protein is an effective anti-cancer agent in mice.

Tumour growth is dependent on angiogenesis, the key mediator of which is vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A). VEGF-A exists as two families of alternatively spliced isoforms - pro-angiogenic VEGF(xxx) generated by proximal, and anti-angiogenic VEGF(xxx)b by distal splicing of exon 8. VEGF(165)b inhibits angiogenesis and is downregulated in tumours. Here, we show for the first time that administration of recombinant human VEGF(165)b inhibits colon carcinoma tumour growth and tumour vessel density in nude mice, with a terminal plasma half-life of 6.2h and directly inhibited angiogenic parameters (endothelial sprouting, orientation and structure formation) in vitro. Intravenous injection of (125)I-VEGF(165)b demonstrated significant tumour uptake lasting at least 24h. No adverse effects on liver function or haemodynamics were observed. These results indicate that injected VEGF(165)b was taken up into the tumour as an effective anti-angiogenic cancer therapy, and provide proof of principle for the development of this anti-angiogenic growth factor splice isoform as a novel cancer therapy.

Familial patterns and the origins of individual differences in synaesthesia.

The term synaesthesia has been applied to a range of different sensory-perceptual and cognitive experiences, yet how these experiences are related to each other is not well understood. Not only are there disparate types of synaesthesia, but even within types there are vast individual differences in the way that stimuli induce synaesthesia and in the subjective synaesthetic experience. An investigation of the inheritance patterns of different types of synaesthesia is likely to elucidate whether a single underlying mechanism can explain all types. This study is the first to systematically survey all types of synaesthesia within a familial framework. We recruited 53 synaesthetes and 42% of these probands reported a first-degree relative with synaesthesia. We then directly contacted as many first-degree relatives as possible and collected complete data on synaesthetic status for all family members for 17 families. We found that different types of synaesthesia can occur within the same family and that the qualitative nature of the experience can differ between family members. Our findings strongly indicate that various types of synaesthesia are fundamentally related at the genetic level, but that the explicit associations and the individual differences between synaesthetes are influenced by other factors. Synaesthesia thus provides a good model to explore the interplay of all these factors in the development of cognitive traits in general.

In vitro and in vivo comparison of DTPA- and DOTA-conjugated antiferritin monoclonal antibody for imaging and therapy of pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer has a very poor prognosis with a less than 5% survival rate at 5 years. Neither external beam radiation nor chemotherapy, alone or in combination, have given encouraging results so far. A possible solution might come from the use of targeted therapy such as radioimmunotherapy. We present here the results obtained from the preclinical development of a new monoclonal antiferritin antibody (Ab), AMB8LK. Ferritin is overexpressed in pancreatic cancer and could thus be used as a target for the delivery of radioactivity at the tumour sites. The AMB8LK Ab was conjugated to three chelating agents: the 2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (PSCN-Bz-DTPA), the (R)-2-amino-3-(4-isothiocyanatophenyl)propyl]-trans-(S,S)-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine-pentaacetic acid (p5CN-Bz-CHX-A"-DTPA) and the 2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (pSCN-Bz-DOTA). Radiolabelling of the three immunoconjugates with indium 111 and yttrium 90 as well as in vitro stability and immunoreactivity against pure ferritin and cells expressing ferritin were analysed. In vivo biodistribution studies were conducted on normal and on human pancreatic adenocarcinoma CAPAN-1 tumour bearing mice. These experiments demonstrated good radiolabelling (>95%), stability and immunoreactivity of the three compounds. In the biodistribution studies, differences between the three immunoconjugates were apparent in the rate of blood clearance and in tumour, liver and bone uptake. A very good pancreatic adenocarcinoma tumour targeting was observed especially with the Bz-DTPA-AMB8LK: 20% of the injected dose of the indium-labelled compound 3 days after injection; 15% of the injected dose 5 days after that of the yttrium-labelled Ab. Altogether, these results in animal models suggest that (90)Y-Bz-DTPA-AMB8LK is a good candidate for further therapeutic efficacy studies.

Visual and haptic representations of scenes are updated with observer movement.

Scene recognition has been found to be sensitive to the orientation of the scene with respect to the stationary observer. Recent studies have shown, however, that observer movement can compensate for changes in visual scene orientation, through a process of spatial updating. Here we investigated whether spatial updating in scene recognition is affected by the encoding or learning modality by examining whether observer movement can also compensate for orientation changes in haptic scene recognition. In experiment 1, we replicated previously reported effects of observer movement on visual scene recognition. In experiment 2, we used the same apparatus as in experiment 1 but here participants were required to learn and recognize the scenes using touch alone. We found a cost in recognition performance with changes in scene orientation relative to the stationary observer. However, when participants could move around the scene to recognize the new orientation, then this cost in recognition performance disappeared. Thus, we found that spatial updating applies to recognition in both the visual and haptic modalities, both of which intrinsically encode the spatial properties of a scene.