Student and School Characteristics Associated With COVID-19-Related Learning Decline Among Middle and High School Students in K-12 Schools.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19-disrupted schools, including shifts to virtual learning which may have impacted academic progress. This study assessed characteristics associated with changes in academic grades (before and during the pandemic) for different learning modalities for US students ages 13-19. METHODS: Students (N = 2152) completed a web survey on school-related experiences during the 2020-2021 school year. County social vulnerability and SARS-CoV-2 transmission data were merged with survey data. Multivariable logistic regression analysis for grade change was conducted with student and school characteristics for each learning modality, controlling for community characteristics. RESULTS: Greater proportions of remote/virtual (34.4%) and hybrid (30.1%) learning students reported grade decline compared to in-person students (19.9%). Among in-person students, odds of reporting same/improved grades were 65% lower among non-Hispanic black students and 66% lower among non-Hispanic students from other races, compared to non-Hispanic white students. Among hybrid students, odds of reporting same/improved grades for students reporting anxiety were 47% lower than students without anxiety, and odds of reporting same/improved grades among students reporting substance use were 40% lower than students not reporting substance use. Among remote/virtual students, odds of reporting same/improved grades among students with depression were 62% lower than odds of students not reporting depression symptoms. Remote/virtual students who received school-provided educational services also had 1.55 times the odds of reporting same/improved grades, compared to remote/virtual students not receiving these services. CONCLUSIONS: Academic grades were negatively impacted during COVID-19 and learning mode may have contributed. Understanding these impacts is critical to student health and academic achievement.

Motivators of Continued Participation in Public Health Emergency Response Among Federal Public Health Workers: A Qualitative Study.

The purpose of this study was to identify factors that motivate public health workers to deploy to the field during an emergency event. We conducted 25 semistructured interviews with employees at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, all of whom had deployed to the field for the 2014-2016 Ebola, 2016-2017 Zika, and 2017 hurricane responses. We used a grounded theory approach in our analysis of the data. Themes that emerged from the interviews related to responder autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are consistent with self-determination theory. Motivating factors included having clarity about the response role, desire to be challenged, ability to apply existing skills in the field (or apply new skills learned during deployment to their home office), desire to be helpful, and feeling rewarded by working with affected populations, communities, and other response staff. These preliminary findings suggest that introjected and identified motivating factors may form the foundation of willingness among public health workers to assist during an emergency event. Understanding what motivates staff at public health agencies to participate in emergency deployment can inform the development of recruitment strategies, strengthen effectiveness of response activities, and improve overall agency preparedness.

Applying the Ready, Willing, and Able Framework to Assess Agency Public Health Emergency Preparedness: The CDC Perspective.

Public health emergencies in the United States have been complex, frequent, and increasingly costly in the past decade, at times overwhelming government agencies that are primarily resourced for routine, nonemergency health functions. Emergencies are not always predictable, and adequate resources are not always available to prepare staff in advance for emergency response roles and to mobilize them quickly when a new threat emerges. Additionally, real-world data that connect preparedness levels to response outcomes may be difficult to obtain, further limiting continuous quality improvement efforts by public health officials. In this article, we apply the Ready, Willing, and Able (RWA) framework to identify areas for improvement related to organizational and staff readiness, willingness, and ability to respond during a public health emergency. We share emergency response deployment, training, and personnel data collected as part of emergency response activations (2008 to 2018) at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to illustrate how the framework may be applied at government agencies to improve response processes and effectiveness. Additionally, we propose potential metrics aligned with the framework constructs that may help emergency managers consistently assess agency preparedness and, over time, be incorporated into broader standardized measurement methods. We conclude that the RWA framework is a practical tool that can complement other preparedness approaches currently in use at government public health agencies.

The Changing Landscape of HIV Prevention in the United States: Health Department Experiences and Local Adaptations in Response to the National HIV/AIDS Strategy and High-Impact Prevention Approach.

OBJECTIVE: HIV prevention has changed substantially in recent years due to changes in national priorities, biomedical advances, and health care reform. Starting in 2010, motivated by the National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC's) High-Impact Prevention (HIP), health departments realigned resources so that cost-effective, evidence-based interventions were targeted to groups at risk in areas most affected by HIV. This analysis describes how health departments in diverse settings were affected by NHAS and HIP. METHODS: We conducted interviews and a consultation with health departments from 16 jurisdictions and interviewed CDC project officers who monitored programs in 5 of the jurisdictions. Participants were asked to describe changes since NHAS and HIP and how they adapted. We used inductive qualitative analysis to identify themes of change. RESULTS: Health departments improved their HIV prevention practices in different ways. They aligned jurisdictional plans with NHAS and HIP goals, increased local data use to monitor program performance, streamlined services, and strengthened partnerships to increase service delivery to persons at highest risk for infection/transmission. They shifted efforts to focus more on the needs of people with diagnosed HIV infection, increased HIV testing and routine HIV screening in clinical settings, raised provider and community awareness about preexposure prophylaxis, and used nontraditional strategies to successfully engage out-of-care people with diagnosed HIV infection. However, staff-, provider-, and data-related barriers that could slow scale-up of priority programs were consistently reported by participants, potentially impeding the ability to meet national goals. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest progress toward NHAS and HIP goals has been made in some jurisdictions but highlight the need to monitor prevention programs in different contexts to identify areas for improvement and increase the likelihood of national success. Health departments and federal funders alike can benefit from the routine sharing of successes and challenges associated with local policy implementation, considering effects on the overall portfolio of programs.

Improving Linkage, Retention, and Reengagement in HIV Care in 12 Metropolitan Areas.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed the Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning (ECHPP) project to support 12 health departments' improvement of their HIV prevention and care portfolios in response to new national guidelines. We systematically analyzed 3 years of progress reports to learn how grantees put into practice local intervention strategies intended to link people to, and keep them in, HIV care. All grantees initiated seven activities to support these strategies: (1) improve surveillance data systems, (2) revise staffing duties and infrastructures, (3) update policies and procedures, (4) establish or strengthen partnerships, (5) identify persons not in care, (6) train personnel, and (7) create ways to overcome obstacles to receiving care. Factors supporting ECHPP grantee successes were thorough planning, attention to detail, and strong collaboration among health department units, and between the health department and external stakeholders. Other jurisdictions may consider adopting similar strategies when planning and enhancing HIV linkage, retention, and reengagement efforts in their areas. ECHPP experiences, lessons learned, and best practices may be relevant when applying new public health policies that affect community and health care practices jurisdiction-wide.

Shifting Resources and Focus to Meet the Goals of the National HIV/AIDS Strategy: The Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning Project, 2010-2013.

In September 2010, CDC launched the Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning (ECHPP) project to shift HIV-related activities to meet goals of the 2010 National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS). Twelve health departments in cities with high AIDS burden participated. These 12 grantees submitted plans detailing jurisdiction-level goals, strategies, and objectives for HIV prevention and care activities. We reviewed plans to identify themes in the planning process and initial implementation. Planning themes included data integration, broad engagement of partners, and resource allocation modeling. Implementation themes included organizational change, building partnerships, enhancing data use, developing protocols and policies, and providing training and technical assistance for new and expanded activities. Pilot programs also allowed grantees to assess the feasibility of large-scale implementation. These findings indicate that health departments in areas hardest hit by HIV are shifting their HIV prevention and care programs to increase local impact. Examples from ECHPP will be of interest to other health departments as they work toward meeting the NHAS goals.

Evaluation Framework for HIV Prevention and Care Activities in the Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning Project, 2010-2013.

OBJECTIVE: The Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning (ECHPP) project was a demonstration project implemented by 12 U.S. health departments (2010-2013) to enhance HIV program planning in cities with high AIDS prevalence, in support of National HIV/AIDS Strategy goals. Grantees were required to improve their planning and implementation of HIV prevention and care programs to increase their impact on local HIV epidemics. A multilevel evaluation using multiple data sources, spanning multiple years (2008-2015), will be conducted to assess the effect of ECHPP on client outcomes (e.g., HIV risk behaviors) and impact indicators (e.g., new HIV diagnoses). METHODS: We designed an evaluation approach that includes a broad assessment of program planning and implementation, a detailed examination of HIV prevention and care activities across funding sources, and an analysis of environmental and contextual factors that may affect services. A data triangulation approach was incorporated to integrate findings across all indicators and data sources to determine the extent to which ECHPP contributed to trends in indicators. RESULTS: To date, data have been collected for 2008-2009 (pre-ECHPP implementation) and 2010-2013 (ECHPP period). Initial analysis of process data indicate the ECHPP grantees increased their provision of HIV testing, condom distribution, and partner services programs and expanded their delivery of prevention programs for people diagnosed with HIV. CONCLUSION: The ECHPP evaluation (2008-2015) will assess whether ECHPP programmatic activities in 12 areas with high AIDS prevalence contributed to changes in client outcomes, and whether these changes were associated with changes in longer-term, community-level impact.

Health Department HIV Prevention Programs That Support the National HIV/AIDS Strategy: The Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning Project, 2010-2013.

OBJECTIVE: The Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning project was the first initiative of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to address the goals of the National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS). Health departments in 12 U.S. cities with a high prevalence of AIDS conducted comprehensive program planning and implemented cost-effective, scalable HIV prevention interventions that targeted high-risk populations. We examined trends in health department HIV prevention programs in these cities during the project. METHODS: We analyzed the number of people who received partner services, condoms distributed, and people tested for HIV, as well as funding allocations for selected HIV prevention programs by year and by site from October 2010 through September 2013. We assessed trends in the proportional change in services and allocations during the project period using generalized estimating equations. We also conducted thematic coding of program activities that targeted people living with HIV infection (PLWH). RESULTS: We found significant increases in funding allocations for HIV testing and condom distribution. All HIV partner services indicators, condom distribution, and HIV testing of African American and Hispanic/Latino populations significantly increased. HIV tests associated with a new diagnosis increased significantly among those self-identifying as Hispanic/Latino but significantly decreased among African Americans. For programs targeting PLWH, health department activities included implementing new program models, improving local data use, and building local capacity to enhance linkage to HIV medical care, retention in care, and treatment adherence. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, these findings indicate that health departments in areas with a high burden of AIDS successfully shifted their HIV prevention resources to scale up important HIV programs and make progress toward NHAS goals.

NIH support of Centers for AIDS Research and Department of Health Collaborative Public Health Research: advancing CDC's Enhanced Comprehensive HIV Prevention Planning project.

The contributions reported in this supplemental issue highlight the relevance of NIH-funded CEWG research to health department­supported HIV prevention and care activities in the 9 US cities with the highest numbers of AIDS cases. The project findings have the potential to enhance ongoing HIV treatment and care services and to advance the wider scientific agenda. The HIV testing to care continuum, while providing a framework to help track progress on national goals, also can reflect the heterogeneities of local epidemics. The collaborative research that is highlighted in this issue not only reflects a locally driven research agenda but also demonstrates research methods, data collection tools, and collaborative processes that could be encouraged across jurisdictions. Projects such as these, capitalizing on the integrated efforts of NIH, CDC, DOH, and academic institutions, have the potential to contribute to improvements in the HIV care continuum in these communities, bringing us closer to realizing the HIV prevention and treatment goals of the NHAS.

Characteristics of first-time and repeat HIV tests among men who have sex with men who test at CDC-supported sites, 2007.

This report describes characteristics of HIV test data for men who have sex with men (MSM) tested in 2007 through programs funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV test-level data of MSM submitted by 29 health departments were analyzed to explore test characteristics among all tests, first-time tests, and repeat tests. Characteristics significantly associated with HIV-positive results among first-time tests were identified through logistic regression. Of the 129,893 tests conducted, 18% were first-time tests and 82% were repeat tests. HIV positivity among first-time tests was 4.1% and 3.7% among repeat tests. Among first-time tests, 46% of tests were among White MSM and 48% of HIV-positive test results were among African Americans. An HIV-positive test among first-time tests was strongly associated with being African American, being 40-49 years old, and testing in the southern United States. Race/ethnicity differences exist among MSM testing at CDC-funded sites. African American MSM accounted for the greatest proportion of HIV-positive results but White MSM represented the greatest proportion of tests conducted. HIV prevention strategies that include CDC-funded testing for MSM should increase targeting of African Americans.

Evaluation of an HIV prevention intervention for African Americans and Hispanics: findings from the VOICES/VOCES Community-based Organization Behavioral Outcomes Project.

There is limited knowledge about whether the delivery of evidence-based, HIV prevention interventions in 'real world' settings will produce outcomes similar to efficacy trial outcomes. In this study, we describe longitudinal changes in sexual risk outcomes among African American and Hispanic participants in the Video Opportunities for Innovative Condom Education and Safer Sex (VOICES/VOCES) program at four CDC-funded agencies. VOICES/VOCES was delivered to 922 high-risk individuals in a variety of community settings such as substance abuse treatment centers, housing complex centers, private residences, shelters, clinics, and colleges. Significant risk reductions were consistently observed at 30- and 120-days post-intervention for all outcome measures (e.g., unprotected sex, self-reported STD infection). Risk reductions were strongest for African American participants, although Hispanic participants also reported reducing their risky behaviors. These results suggest that, over a decade after the first diffusion of VOICES/VOCES across the U.S. by CDC, this intervention remains an effective tool for reducing HIV risk behaviors among high-risk African American and Hispanic individuals.

Taxonomy for strengthening the identification of core elements for evidence-based behavioral interventions for HIV/AIDS prevention.

The concept of core elements was developed to denote characteristics of an intervention, such as activities or delivery methods, presumed to be responsible for the efficacy of evidence-based behavioral interventions (EBIs) for HIV/AIDS prevention. This paper describes the development of a taxonomy of core elements based on a literature review of theoretical approaches and characteristics of EBIs. Sixty-one categories of core elements were identified from the literature and grouped into three distinct domains: implementation, content and pedagogy. The taxonomy was tested by categorizing core elements from 20 HIV prevention EBIs disseminated by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Results indicated that core elements represented all three domains but several were difficult to operationalize due to vague language or the inclusion of numerous activities or constructs. A process is proposed to describe core elements in a method that overcomes some of these challenges. The taxonomy of core elements can be used to identify core elements of EBIs, strengthen the translation of EBIs from research to practice and guide future research seeking to identify essential core elements in prevention interventions.

Correlates of HIV-related risk behaviors in African American adolescents from substance-using families: patterns of adolescent-level factors associated with sexual experience and substance use.

PURPOSE: To examine adolescent-level correlates of HIV-related risk behaviors among urban African American adolescents whose mothers use crack cocaine. METHODS: Interviews were conducted with 208 African American adolescents (aged 12-17 years) to assess psychosocial, behavioral, and perceived environment correlates of HIV-related risk behavior. Adolescents were children of community-recruited African American women not currently in drug treatment who reported crack cocaine use (in last 6 months). Bivariate and multivariate regression models were used to evaluate associations among adolescent-level factors, sexual experience, and substance use. RESULTS: Of the adolescents, 30% reported being sexually experienced, and 23% reported alcohol or drug use in the past month. Older age and lower school satisfaction were associated with both sexual experience and substance use, but no other factors were associated with both risk behaviors. Male gender, current substance use, high HIV/AIDS knowledge, and high risk perception were associated with being sexual experienced. Sexual experience and lower expectations for future life outcomes were associated with substance use. A general pattern of protective factors related to attitudes about future goals, help-seeking behavior, and positive feelings about school emerged for substance use. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the patterns of adolescent-level risk and protective factors for sexual experience and substance use may be unique in African American adolescents from substance-abusing families. Instead of an increase in problem behaviors associated with using substances, protective factors were evident, suggesting these adolescents may have resiliency for dealing with environmental stressors related to substance use. Implications for HIV prevention programs involving mentoring and goal development are discussed.

Correlates of risk patterns and race/ethnicity among HIV-positive men who have sex with men.

Behaviors related to HIV infection vary by race, with African American and Latino men who have sex with men (MSM) more likely to report sex with women than are European-American MSM. The epidemic among African Americans, in particular, is growing rapidly among both men and women. Some have hypothesized that bisexually active men may be contributing to the epidemic among women. However, little is known about risk patterns among men of different races who are already infected. In this study of 456 HIV-seropositive MSM we found that, like HIV-negative MSM, African American MSM who are HIV-positive were less likely than European American men to identify as gay, more likely to report sex with women, and less comfortable discussing their MSM behavior with close friends and acquaintances. African American participants also exhibited higher levels of internalized homophobia, as well as lower self-efficacy for disclosing their HIV status to sex partners. Implications for interventions for this population are discussed.

Recruitment source and behavioral risk patterns of HIV-positive men who have sex with men.

To effectively target HIV prevention activities, community outreach workers need to know how to locate persons at greatest risk for acquiring or transmitting HIV. This study compared the behavioral characteristics of HIV-positive men who have sex with men recruited from different sources: AIDS service organizations, mainstream gay environments, public/private sex environments, and friend referrals. Men recruited from sex environments exhibited the riskiest behavior: more male partners, more likely to have casual sex, more likely to have had unprotected insertive sex with men of HIV-negative or unknown status, less likely to have disclosed serostatus to primary partners, less comfortable discussing serostatus with others, and less feeling of personal responsibility for disclosure. A distinctive group of men, the referral group, did not identify with the gay community and reported sex with men and women. Future efforts should continue to assess the types of people that are recruited from different sources so that program and research efforts can be appropriately targeted.