Translating the Interplay of Cognition and Physical Performance in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Interstitial Lung Disease: Meeting Report and Literature Review.

TOPIC IMPORTANCE: Cognitive and physical limitations are common in individuals with chronic lung diseases, but their interactions with physical function and activities of daily living are not well characterized. Understanding these interactions and potential contributors may provide insights on disability and enable more tailored rehabilitation strategies. REVIEW FINDINGS: This review summarizes a 2-day meeting of patient partners, clinicians, researchers, and lung associations to discuss the interplay between cognitive and physical function in people with chronic lung diseases. This report covers four areas: 1) cognitive-physical limitations in patients with chronic lung diseases, 2) cognitive assessments, 3) strategies to optimize cognition and motor control and 4) future research directions. Cognitive and physical impairments have multiple effects on quality of life and daily function. Meeting participants acknowledged the need for a standardized cognitive assessment to complement physical assessments in patients with chronic lung diseases. Dyspnea, fatigue, and age were recognized as important contributors to cognition that can affect motor control and daily physical function. Pulmonary rehabilitation was highlighted as a multidisciplinary strategy that may improve respiratory and limb motor control through neuroplasticity, and has the potential to improve physical function and quality of life. SUMMARY: There was consensus that cognitive function and the cognitive interference of dyspnea in people with chronic lung diseases contribute to motor control impairments that can negatively impact daily function, which may be improved with pulmonary rehabilitation. The meeting generated several key research questions related to cognitive-physical interactions in individuals with chronic lung diseases.

Woody plant encroachment drives population declines in 20% of common open ecosystem bird species.

Grassy ecosystems cover more than 40% of the world's terrestrial surface, supporting crucial ecosystem services and unique biodiversity. These ecosystems have experienced major losses from conversion to agriculture with the remaining fragments threatened by global change. Woody plant encroachment, the increase in woody cover threatening grassy ecosystems, is a major global change symptom, shifting the composition, structure, and function of plant communities with concomitant effects on all biodiversity. To identify generalisable impacts of encroachment on biodiversity, we urgently need broad-scale studies on how species respond to woody cover change. Here, we make use of bird atlas, woody cover change data (between 2007 and 2016) and species traits, to assess: (1) population trends and woody cover responses using dynamic occupancy models; (2) how outcomes relate to habitat, diet and nesting traits; and (3) predictions of future occupancy trends, for 191 abundant, southern African bird species. We found that: (1) 63% (121) of species showed a decline in occupancy, with 18% (34) of species' declines correlated with increasing woody cover (i.e. losers). Only 2% (4) of species showed increasing population trends linked with increased woody cover (i.e. winners); (2) Open habitat specialist, invertivorous, ground nesting birds were the most frequent losers, however, we found no definitive evidence that the selected traits could predict outcomes; and (3) We predict open habitat loser species will take on average 52 years to experience 50% population declines with current rates of encroachment. Our results bring attention to concerning region-wide declining bird population trends and highlight woody plant encroachment as an important driver of bird population dynamics. Importantly, these findings should encourage improved management and restoration of our remaining grassy ecosystems. Furthermore, our findings show the importance of lands beyond protected areas for biodiversity, and the urgent need to mitigate the impacts of woody plant encroachment on bird biodiversity.

Respiratory oscillometry with CT image analysis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis following single lung transplant.

Oscillometry is an emerging pulmonary function testing tool that is conducted during tidal breaths with minimal patient effort. It is highly sensitive to changes in lung mechanics. Oscillometry was recently shown to be highly associated with disease severity in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The usefulness of oscillometry after single lung transplant in IPF patients is not well understood. Our study demonstrated that oscillometry can detect changes in the graft despite presence of a native fibrotic lung to provide useful information to complement spirometry.

Characteristics of pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas in patients with fibrotic interstitial lung disease.

BACKGROUND: Fibrotic interstitial lung disease (ILD) is frequently associated with abnormal oxygenation; however, little is known about the accuracy of oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry (SpO2) compared with arterial blood gas (ABG) saturation (SaO2), the factors that influence the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) and the impact of PaCO2 on outcomes in patients with fibrotic ILD. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Patients with fibrotic ILD enrolled in a large prospective registry with a room air ABG were included. Prespecified analyses included testing the correlation between SaO2 and SpO2, the difference between SaO2 and SpO2, the association of baseline characteristics with both the difference between SaO2 and SpO2 and the PaCO2, the association of baseline characteristics with acid-base category, and the association of PaCO2 and acid-base category with time to death or transplant. RESULTS: A total of 532 patients with fibrotic ILD were included. Mean resting SaO2 was 92±4% and SpO2 was 95±3%. Mean PaCO2 was 38±6 mmHg, with 135 patients having PaCO2 <35 mmHg and 62 having PaCO2 >45 mmHg. Correlation between SaO2 and SpO2 was mild to moderate (r=0.39), with SpO2 on average 3.0% higher than SaO2. No baseline characteristics were associated with the difference in SaO2 and SpO2. Variables associated with either elevated or abnormal (elevated or low) PaCO2 included higher smoking pack-years and lower baseline forced vital capacity (FVC). Lower baseline lung function was associated with an increased risk of chronic respiratory acidosis. PaCO2 and acid-base status were not associated with time to death or transplant. INTERPRETATION: SaO2 and SpO2 are weakly-to-moderately correlated in fibrotic ILD, with limited ability to accurately predict this difference. Abnormal PaCO2 was associated with baseline FVC but was not associated with outcomes.

Clinical implications of frailty assessed in hospitalized patients with acute-exacerbation of interstitial lung disease.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 50% of patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD) experience frailty, which remains unexplored in acute exacerbations of ILD (AE-ILD). A better understanding may help with prognostication and resource planning. We evaluated the association of frailty with clinical characteristics, physical function, hospital outcomes, and post-AE-ILD recovery. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of AE-ILD patients (01/2015-10/2019) with frailty (proportion ≥0.25) on a 30-item cumulative-deficits index. Frail and non-frail patients were compared for pre- and post-hospitalization clinical characteristics, adjusted for age, sex, and ILD diagnosis. One-year mortality, considering transplantation as a competing risk, was analysed adjusting for age, frailty, and Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI). RESULTS: 89 AE-ILD patients were admitted (median: 67 years, 63% idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis). 31 were frail, which was associated with older age, greater CCI, lower 6-min walk distance, and decreased independence pre-hospitalization. Frail patients had more major complications (32% vs 10%, p = .01) and required more multidisciplinary support during hospitalization. Frailty was not associated with 1-year mortality (HR: 0.97, 95%CI: [0.45-2.10]) factoring transplantation as a competing risk. CONCLUSIONS: Frailty was associated with reduced exercise capacity, increased comorbidities and hospital complications. Identifying frailty may highlight those requiring additional multidisciplinary support, but further study is needed to explore whether frailty is modifiable with AE-ILD.

Epidemiology and Prognostic Significance of Cough in Fibrotic Interstitial Lung Disease.

Rationale: Cough is a key symptom in patients with fibrotic interstitial lung disease (ILD). Objective: This study evaluated the prevalence, longitudinal change, associations, and prognostic significance of cough severity in patients with fibrotic ILD. Methods: We included consecutive patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and non-IPF fibrotic ILD who completed the 100mm-Cough Severity Visual Analog Scale (VAS) from the prospective multi-center Canadian Registry for Pulmonary Fibrosis. Baseline cough severity and associations with patient demographics and clinical factors were determined. Relationships between baseline cough severity and health outcomes were evaluated. Measurements and Main Results: Patients with IPF (n=1061) had higher median baseline cough severity than those with non-IPF fibrotic ILD (n=2825) [24 vs 20mm, p<0.001], with worse cough associated with gastroesophageal reflux disease for both cohorts. Worse cough severity was independently associated with worse health-related quality of life at baseline, larger annualized decline in DLCO, development of disease progression, and reduced transplant-free survival in both IPF and non-IPF fibrotic ILD cohorts. The IPF cohort (2.2mm, 95% CI 1.6-2.9mm) had larger annualized increments in cough severity compared to the non-IPF fibrotic ILD cohort (1.1mm, 95% CI 0.8-1.4mm; p=0.004). There was no difference in worsening cough over time comparing those receiving and not receiving ILD-targeted therapy or with and without lung function decline. Conclusion: Cough is common in patients with IPF and non-IPF fibrotic ILD, with increasing cough severity over time irrespective of ILD-targeted therapy. Patient-reported cough severity has prognostic implications on health-related quality of life, disease progression, and survival in fibrotic ILD.

Impact of surgical lung biopsy on lung function and survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in a multi-centre registry cohort.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Establishing an accurate and timely diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is essential for appropriate management and prognostication. In some cases, surgical lung biopsy (SLB) is performed but carries non-negligible risk. The objective of this retrospective study was to determine if SLB is associated with accelerated lung function decline in patients with IPF using the Canadian Registry for Pulmonary Fibrosis. METHODS: Linear mixed models and Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to compare decline in forced vital capacity (FVC)%, diffusion capacity of the lung (DLCO%) and risk of death or lung transplantation between SLB and non-SLB patients. Adjustments were made for baseline age, sex, smoking history, antifibrotic use, and lung function. A similar analysis compared lung function changes 12 months pre- and post-SLB. RESULTS: A total of 81 SLB patients and 468 non-SLB patients were included. In the SLB group, the post-biopsy annual FVC% decline was 2.0% (±0.8) in unadjusted, and 2.1% (±0.8) in adjusted models. There was no difference in FVC% decline, DLCO% decline, or time to death or lung transplantation between the two groups, in adjusted or unadjusted models (all p-values >0.07). In the pre-post SLB group, no differences were identified in FVC% decline in unadjusted or adjusted models (p = 0.07 for both). CONCLUSION: No association between SLB and lung function decline or risk of death or lung transplantation was identified in this multi-centre study of patients with IPF.

Lung imaging patterns in connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease impact prognosis and immunosuppression response.

OBJECTIVES: Interstitial lung disease (ILD) in connective tissue diseases (CTD) have highly variable morphology. We aimed to identify imaging features and their impact on ILD progression, mortality and immunosuppression response. METHODS: Patients with CTD-ILD had high-resolution chest computed tomography (HRCT) reviewed by expert radiologists blinded to clinical data for overall imaging pattern (usual interstitial pneumonia [UIP]; non-specific interstitial pneumonia [NSIP]; organizing pneumonia [OP]; fibrotic hypersensitivity pneumonitis [fHP]; and other). Transplant-free survival and change in percent-predicted forced vital capacity (FVC) were compared using Cox and linear mixed effects models adjusted for age, sex, smoking, and baseline FVC. FVC decline after immunosuppression was compared with pre-treatment. RESULTS: Of 645 CTD-ILD patients, the frequent CTDs were systemic sclerosis (n = 215), rheumatoid arthritis (n = 127), and inflammatory myopathies (n = 100). NSIP was the most common pattern (54%), followed by UIP (20%), fHP (9%), and OP (5%). Compared with UIP, FVC decline was slower for NSIP (1.1%/year, 95%CI 0.2, 1.9) and OP (3.5%/year, 95%CI 2.0, 4.9), and mortality was lower for NSIP (HR 0.65, 95%CI 0.45, 0.93) and OP (HR 0.18, 95%CI 0.05, 0.57), but higher in fHP (HR 1.58, 95%CI 1.01, 2.40). The extent of fibrosis also predicted FVC decline and mortality. After immunosuppression, FVC decline was slower compared with pre-treatment in NSIP (by 2.1%/year, 95%CI 1.4, 2.8), with no change for UIP or fHP. CONCLUSION: Multiple radiologic patterns are possible in CTD-ILD, including a fHP pattern. NSIP and OP were associated with better outcomes and response to immunosuppression, while fHP had worse survival compared with UIP.

Validation of a Dyspnea Visual Analog Scale in Fibrotic Interstitial Lung Disease.

Rationale: A visual analog scale (VAS) is a simple and easily administered tool for measuring the impact of disease; however, little is known about the use of a dyspnea VAS in interstitial lung disease (ILD). Objectives: To validate the use of a dyspnea VAS in a large and heterogeneous cohort of patients with fibrotic ILD, including its minimal clinically important difference (MCID), responsiveness to change, and prognostic significance. Methods: Patients with fibrotic ILD were identified from a large prospective registry. The validity of a 100-mm dyspnea VAS was assessed by testing its correlation in change score with other measures of ILD severity, including the University of California San Diego Shortness of Breath Questionnaire, the King's Brief Interstitial Lung Disease quality of life questionnaire Breathlessness and Activities Domain, the European Quality of Life VAS, forced vital capacity, and diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide. The responsiveness of the dyspnea VAS was qualitatively confirmed on the basis of there being an observable difference in the change in dyspnea VAS across tertiles of change in anchor variables. The MCID in dyspnea VAS was calculated using both anchor (linear regression) and distribution (one-half standard deviation) approaches, with anchors including the above variables that had a correlation with dyspnea VAS (|r| ≥ 0.30). The association of dyspnea VAS with time to death or transplant was determined. Results: The cohort included 826 patients with fibrotic ILD, including 127 patients with follow-up measurements at 6 months. The mean baseline dyspnea VAS was 53 ± 24 mm. Dyspnea VAS change scores were moderately correlated with the University of California San Diego Shortness of Breath Questionnaire (|r| = 0.55) and the King's Brief Interstitial Lung Disease quality of life questionnaire Breathlessness and Activities Domain (|r| = 0.44) and weakly correlated with the European Quality of Life VAS (|r| = 0.19), forced vital capacity percent predicted (|r| = 0.21), and diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide percent predicted (|r| = 0.05). The MCID was 2.7 to 4.5 using the more reliable anchor-based methods and 12.0 based on distribution-based methods. Dyspnea VAS was associated with time to death or transplant in unadjusted models and after adjustment for age and sex (hazard ratios, 1.16 and 1.15, respectively; P < 0.05 for both). Conclusions: This study provides support for the use of the dyspnea VAS in patients with fibrotic ILD, with an estimated anchor-based MCID of 5 mm.

The Clinical Frailty Scale for Risk Stratification in Patients With Fibrotic Interstitial Lung Disease.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown the importance of frailty in patients with fibrotic interstitial lung disease (ILD). RESEARCH QUESTION: Is the Clinical Frailty Scale (CFS) a valid tool to improve risk stratification in patients with fibrotic ILD? STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Patients with fibrotic ILD were included from the prospective multicenter Canadian Registry for Pulmonary Fibrosis. The CFS was assessed using available information from initial ILD clinic visits. Patients were stratified into fit (CFS score 1-3), vulnerable (CFS score 4), and frail (CFS score 5-9) subgroups. Cox proportional hazards and logistic regression models with mixed effects were used to estimate time to death or lung transplantation. A derivation and validation cohort was used to establish prognostic performance. Trajectories of functional tests were compared using joint models. RESULTS: Of the 1,587 patients with fibrotic ILD, 858 (54%) were fit, 400 (25%) were vulnerable, and 329 (21%) were frail. Frailty was a risk factor for early mortality (hazard ratio, 5.58; 95% CI, 3.64-5.76, P < .001) in the entire cohort, in individual ILD diagnoses, and after adjustment for potential confounders. Adding frailty to established risk prediction parameters improved the prognostic performance in derivation and validation cohorts. Patients in the frail subgroup had larger annual declines in FVC % predicted than patients in the fit subgroup (-2.32; 95% CI, -3.39 to -1.17 vs -1.55; 95% CI, -2.04 to -1.15, respectively; P = .02). INTERPRETATION: The simple and practical CFS is associated with pulmonary and physical function decline in patients with fibrotic ILD and provides additional prognostic accuracy in clinical practice.

Mortality of Pediatric Surgical Lung Biopsies in Ontario, Canada, 2000-2019.

Rationale: Surgical lung biopsies are often required for the definitive diagnosis of nonmalignant pediatric diffuse lung diseases; however, the literature on mortality after surgical lung biopsy in pediatric patients is sparse. Objectives: To determine the 30-day postoperative mortality rate after surgical lung biopsies for nonmalignant lung disease in pediatric patients in Ontario, Canada, and to identify risk factors associated with mortality. Methods: We performed an observational cohort study using population-based health administrative data available from ICES in Ontario, Canada, from 2000 to 2019. Cases were identified using the Canadian Classification of Health Interventions. Inclusion criteria were first surgical lung biopsies between 2000 and 2019 and age <18 years. Individuals with lung cancer, lung transplant, or missing data were excluded. A multivariable logistic regression model with generalized estimating equation was used to estimate the 30-day odds of mortality after surgical lung biopsy and to identify patient characteristics associated with increased mortality while accounting for clustering by hospital. Results: We identified 1,474 pediatric patients who underwent surgical lung biopsy in Ontario between 2000 and 2019. The overall mortality rates decreased over the study duration from 6.6% (2000-2004) to 3.0% (2015-2019). The study cohort for multivariate analyses consisted of 1,342 patients who had complete data. The pediatric mortality 30 days after surgical lung biopsy was 5.1% but was <1% in elective cases. Risk factors for increased mortality included open surgical lung biopsy (vs. video-assisted) (odds ratio [OR], 13.13; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.76, 45.87; P < 0.001), nonelective procedure (OR, 11.74; 95% CI, 3.51, 39.27; P < 0.001), younger age (<3 mo) (OR, 6.04; 95% CI, 2.40, 15.22; P < 0.001), and higher comorbidity score (OR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.05, 1.26; P = 0.003). Conclusions: Pediatric mortality postsurgical lung biopsy is not insignificant, particularly in nonelective procedures. Other important risk factors to consider when pursuing pathologic diagnosis include surgical approach, younger age, and higher comorbidity.

Early versus late onset interstitial lung disease in rheumatoid arthritis: An observational study of risk factors and mortality in Ontario, Canada.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Interstitial lung disease (ILD) can occur as a manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) at various times in the disease course. We aimed to identify factors associated with early versus late onset RA-ILD and how the timing of RA-ILD influenced surgical lung biopsy completion and mortality. METHODS: We performed a retrospective observational study using health services data from Ontario, Canada. We identified RA cases between 2000 and 2020 using the Ontario Rheumatoid Arthritis Database. RA-ILD diagnosis required repeat physician visits for ILD, with early RA-ILD defined as within 1 year of RA diagnosis. We performed multivariable logistic regression to identify factors associated with early RA-ILD and surgical lung biopsy completion, and multivariable cox-proportional hazards regression to evaluate the association of early versus late RA-ILD on all-cause and RA-ILD related mortality. RESULTS: In total, we identified 3717 cases of RA-ILD. Older age at RA diagnosis [OR 1.04 (95%CI 1.03-1.05), p < 0.0001], female sex [OR 1.16 (95%CI 1.01-1.35), p = 0.04] and immigrating to Ontario [OR 1.70 (95%CI 1.35-2.14), p < 0.0001] was associated with early RA-ILD. Patients with early versus late RA-ILD experienced similar odds of undergoing a surgical lung biopsy [OR 1.34 (95%CI 0.83-2.16), p = 0.23]. Early RA-ILD was associated with increased all-cause mortality [HR 1.17 (95%CI 1.07-1.29), p = 0.0009], primarily driven by an increase in RA-ILD related mortality [HR 1.45 (95%CI 1.19-1.76), p = 0.0003]. CONCLUSION: Age at RA onset, female sex and immigration status are associated with early RA-ILD. Patients with early RA-ILD experience increased all-cause and RA-ILD related mortality after adjusting for demographics and comorbidities.

Characteristics and risk factors of interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features.

BACKGROUND: Interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features (IPAF) has features of connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease (CTD-ILD), but without meeting criteria for a specific CTD. We compared baseline characteristics, survival, and response to treatment of IPAF to both CTD-ILD and unclassifiable ILD. METHODS: Measurements were extracted from a prospective registry. Baseline features and survival were compared in IPAF against both CTD-ILD and unclassifiable ILD. Linear trajectory of lung function decline (%-predicted forced vital capacity [FVC%] and diffusion capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide [DLCO%]) before and after initiation of mycophenolate or azathioprine were compared in IPAF against both CTD-ILD and unclassifiable ILD using linear mixed models. RESULTS: Compared to CTD-ILD (n = 1240), patients with IPAF (n = 128) were older, more frequently male, and had greater smoking history. Compared to unclassifiable ILD (n = 665), patients with IPAF were younger, more frequently female, and had worse baseline lung function. IPAF had higher mortality compared to CTD-ILD and similar risk of mortality compared to unclassifiable ILD. Mycophenolate initiation was associated with stabilization of FVC% and DLCO% in all ILD subtypes except for FVC% in patients with IPAF, and azathioprine initiation with stabilization of FVC% and DLCO% in all ILD subtypes except for FVC% decline in IPAF and DLCO% decline in CTD-ILD. CONCLUSION: Patients with IPAF had worse survival compared to those with CTD-ILD and similar mortality to unclassifiable ILD, with treatment being associated with stabilization in lung function in all three ILDs. It is uncertain whether IPAF should be considered a distinct ILD diagnostic subgroup.

Prognostic factors associated with mortality in acute exacerbations of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Acute exacerbations of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (AE-IPF) increases mortality risk, but which factors increase mortality is unknown. We aimed to perform a prognostic review of factors associated with mortality in patients with IPF. STUDY DESIGN: and methods: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL for studies that reported on the association between any prognostic factor and AE-IPF. We assessed risk of bias using the QUIPS tool. We conduced pairwise meta-analyses using REML heterogeneity estimator, and GRADE approach to assess the certainty of the evidence. RESULTS: We included 35 studies in our analysis. We found that long-term supplemental oxygen at baseline (aHR 2.52 [95 % CI 1.68 to 3.80]; moderate certainty) and a diagnosis of IPF compared to non-IPF ILD (aHR 2.19 [95 % CI 1.22 to 3.92]; moderate certainty) is associated with a higher risk of death in patients with AE-IPF. A diffuse pattern on high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) compared to a non-diffuse pattern (aHR 2.61 [95 % CI 1.32 to 2.90]; moderate certainty) is associated with a higher risk of death in patients with AE-IPF. We found that using corticosteroids prior to hospital admission (aHR 2.19 [95 % CI 1.26 to 3.82]; moderate certainty) and those with increased neutrophils (by % increase) in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) during the exacerbation is associated with a higher risk of death (aHR 1.02 [1.01 to 1.04]; moderate certainty). INTERPRETATION: Our results have implications for healthcare providers in making treatment decisions and prognosticating the clinical trajectory of patients, for researchers to design future interventions to improve patient trajectory, and for guideline developers in making decisions about resource allocation.

Impact of Antigen Exposure on Outcomes and Treatment Response in Fibrotic Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis.

BACKGROUND: Patients with fibrotic hypersensitivity pneumonitis (fHP) are frequently treated with immunosuppression to slow lung function decline; however, the impact of this treatment has not been studied across different types of antigen exposure. RESEARCH QUESTION: In patients with fHP, do disease outcomes and response to treatment vary by antigen type? STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A multicenter interstitial lung disease database (Canadian Registry for Pulmonary Fibrosis) was used to identify patients with fHP. The causative antigen was categorized as avian, mold, unknown, or other. Treatment was defined as mycophenolate ≥ 1,000 mg/d or azathioprine ≥ 75 mg/d for ≥ 30 days. Statistical analysis included t tests, χ2 tests, and one-way analysis of variance. Unadjusted and adjusted competing risks and Cox proportional hazards models were used to assess survival. RESULTS: A total of 344 patients were identified with the following causative antigens: avian (n = 93; 27%), mold (n = 88; 26%), other (n = 15; 4%), and unknown (n = 148; 43%). Patient characteristics and lung function were similar among antigen groups with a mean FVC % predicted of 75 ± 20. The percent of patients treated with immunosuppression was similar between antigens with 58% of patients treated. There was no change in lung function or symptom scores with the initiation of immunosuppression in the full cohort. Immunosuppression was not associated with a change in survival for patients with avian or mold antigen (avian: hazard ratio, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.11-1.59; P = .20; mold: hazard ratio, 1.13; 95% CI, 0.26-4.97; P = .88). For patients with unknown causative antigen, survival was worse when treated with immunosuppression (hazard ratio, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.01-6.92; P = .047). INTERPRETATION: Response to immunosuppression varies by antigen type in patients with fHP. Additional studies are needed to test the role of immunosuppression in fHP, and particularly in those with an unknown antigen.

Predicting New-onset Exertional and Resting Hypoxemia in Fibrotic Interstitial Lung Disease.

Rationale: Hypoxemia in fibrotic interstitial lung disease (ILD) indicates disease progression and is of prognostic significance. The onset of hypoxemia signifies disease progression and predicts mortality in fibrotic ILD. Accurately predicting new-onset exertional and resting hypoxemia prompts appropriate patient discussion and timely consideration of home oxygen. Objectives: We derived and externally validated a risk prediction tool for both new-onset exertional and new-onset resting hypoxemia. Methods: This study used ILD registries from Canada for the derivation cohort and from Australia and the United States for the validation cohort. New-onset exertional and resting hypoxemia were defined as nadir oxyhemoglobin saturation < 88% during 6-minute-walk tests, resting oxyhemoglobin saturation < 88%, or the initiation of ambulatory or continuous oxygen. Candidate predictors included patient demographics, ILD subtypes, and pulmonary function. Time-varying Cox regression was used to identify the top-performing prediction model according to Akaike information criterion and clinical usability. Model performance was assessed using Harrell's C-index and goodness-of-fit (GoF) likelihood ratio test. A categorized risk prediction tool was developed. Results: The best-performing prediction model for both new-onset exertional and new-onset resting hypoxemia included age, body mass index, a diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and percent predicted forced vital capacity and diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide. The risk prediction tool exhibited good performance for exertional hypoxemia (C-index, 0.70; GoF, P = 0.85) and resting hypoxemia (C-index, 0.77; GoF, P = 0.27) in the derivation cohort, with similar performance in the validation cohort except calibration for resting hypoxemia (GoF, P = 0.001). Conclusions: This clinically applicable risk prediction tool predicted new-onset exertional and resting hypoxemia at 6 months in the derivation cohort and a diverse validation cohort. Suboptimal GoF in the validation cohort likely reflected overestimation of hypoxemia risk and indicated that the model is not flawed because of underestimation of hypoxemia.

Integration and Application of Radiologic Patterns From Clinical Practice Guidelines on Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis and Fibrotic Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis.

BACKGROUND: Clinical practice guidelines separately describe radiologic patterns of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) and fibrotic hypersensitivity pneumonitis (fHP), without direction on whether or how to apply these approaches concurrently within a single patient. RESEARCH QUESTION: How can we integrate guideline-defined radiologic patterns to diagnose interstitial lung disease (ILD) and what are the pitfalls associated with described patterns that require reassessment in future guidelines? STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Patients from the Canadian Registry for Pulmonary Fibrosis underwent detailed reevaluation in standardized multidisciplinary discussion. CT scan features were quantified by chest radiologists masked to clinical data, and guideline-defined patterns were assigned. Clinical data then were provided to the radiologist and an ILD clinician, who jointly determined the leading diagnosis. RESULTS: Clinical-radiologic diagnosis in 1,593 patients was idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) in 26%, fHP in 12%, connective tissue disease-associated ILD (CTD-ILD) in 34%, idiopathic pneumonia with autoimmune features in 12%, and unclassifiable ILD in 10%. Typical and probable UIP patterns corresponded to a diagnosis of IPF in 66% and 57% of patients, respectively. Typical fHP pattern corresponded to an fHP clinical diagnosis in 65% of patients, whereas compatible fHP was nonspecific and associated with CTD-ILD or IPAF in 48% of patients. No pattern ruled out CTD-ILD. Gas trapping affecting > 5% of lung parenchyma on expiratory imaging was an important feature broadly separating compatible and typical fHP from other patterns (sensitivity, 0.77; specificity, 0.91). INTERPRETATION: An integrated approach to guideline-defined UIP and fHP patterns is feasible and supports > 5% gas trapping as an important branch point. Typical or probable UIP and typical fHP patterns have moderate predictive values for a corresponding diagnosis of IPF and fHP, although occasionally confounded by CTD-ILD; compatible fHP is nonspecific.

Is the internet a sufficient source of information on sarcoidosis?

Introduction: Many patients use the internet as a source of health information. Sarcoidosis is a complex disease, and internet resources have not yet been analyzed for reliability and content on sarcoidosis. Aims: Our study aimed to investigate the content and the quality of information on sarcoidosis provided by internet resources. Methods: Google, Yahoo, and Bing were searched for the term "sarcoidosis," and the first 200 hits were saved in each case. Those websites that met the inclusion criteria (English language, no registration fees, and relevant to sarcoidosis) were then analyzed by two independent investigators for readability, quality (HON, JAMA, and DISCERN), and content (25 predefined key facts) of the provided information. Results: The websites were most commonly scientific or governmental (n = 57, 46%), and the median time since the last update was 24 months. Quality was rated with a median JAMA score of 2 (1; 4) and a median overall DISCERN score of 2.4 (1.1; 4.1), both scores represent partially sufficient information. In total, 15% of websites had a HON certificate. Website content measured by the median key fact score was 19 (ranging from 2.5 to 25) with the lowest scores for acute vs. chronic course of the disease, screening for extrapulmonary disease, and diffuse body pain. Poor results were achieved in industry websites and blogs (p = 0.047) with significant differences regarding definition (p = 0.004) and evaluation (p = 0.021). Discussion: Sarcoidosis-related content of internet resources is partially sufficient; however, several important aspects are frequently not addressed, and the quality of information is moderate. Future directions should focus on providing reliable and comprehensive information on sarcoidosis; physicians from different disciplines and patients including self-support groups should collaborate on achieving this.