ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: The implementation of treated municipal water systems in the 20th century led to a dramatic decrease in waterborne disease in the United States. However, communities with deficient water systems still experience waterborne outbreaks. In August 2004, we investigated an outbreak of gastroenteritis on South Bass Island, Ohio, an island of 900 residents that is visited by >500,000 persons each year. METHODS: To identify the source of illness, we conducted a case-control study and an environmental investigation. A case was defined as diarrhea in a person who traveled to the island during the period from May 1 through 30 September 2004 and became ill within 2 weeks after the visit. Healthy travel companions served as matched control subjects. We also performed an environmental assessment and extensive testing of island water sources. RESULTS: Among the 1450 persons reporting illness, Campylobacter jejuni, norovirus, Giardia intestinalis, and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium were identified in 16, 9, 3, and 1 persons, respectively. We interviewed 100 case patients and 117 matched control subjects. Case patients were more likely to drink water on the island than control subjects (68% vs. 35%; matched odds ratio, 4.3; 95% confidence interval, 2.2-9.3). Sampling of ground water wells indicated contamination with multiple fecal microbes, including Escherichia coli, C. jejuni, Salmonella species, and Giardia species. Irregularities in sewage disposal practices that could have contaminated the underground aquifer were noted. CONCLUSIONS: The combined epidemiological and environmental investigation indicated that sewage-contaminated ground water was the likely source of this large outbreak. Long-term changes to the island's water supply and sewage management infrastructure are needed.
Subject(s)
Disease Outbreaks/statistics & numerical data , Gastroenteritis/epidemiology , Gastroenteritis/microbiology , Travel , Water Microbiology , Adolescent , Adult , Age Distribution , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Campylobacter jejuni/isolation & purification , Case-Control Studies , Child , Child, Preschool , Confidence Intervals , Female , Gastroenteritis/virology , Geography , Humans , Incidence , Infant , Male , Middle Aged , Norovirus/isolation & purification , Odds Ratio , Ohio/epidemiology , Risk Assessment , Salmonella enterica/isolation & purification , Sex Distribution , Water Supply/analysisABSTRACT
Molecular subtyping of Bacillus anthracis played an important role in differentiating and identifying strains during the 2001 bioterrorism-associated outbreak. Because B. anthracis has a low level of genetic variability, only a few subtyping methods, with varying reliability, exist. We initially used multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) to subtype 135 B. anthracis isolates associated with the outbreak. All isolates were determined to be of genotype 62, the same as the Ames strain used in laboratories. We sequenced the protective antigen gene (pagA) from 42 representative outbreak isolates and determined they all had a pagA sequence indistinguishable from the Ames strain (PA genotype I). MLVA and pagA sequencing were also used on DNA from clinical specimens, making subtyping B. anthracis possible without an isolate. Use of high-resolution molecular subtyping determined that all outbreak isolates were indistinguishable by the methods used and probably originated from a single source. In addition, subtyping rapidly identified laboratory contaminants and nonoutbreak-related isolates.
