The inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase A hinders the transcription of histone 2B gene independently from the block of aerobic glycolysis.

Most cancer cells use aerobic glycolysis to fuel their growth and many efforts are made to selectively block this metabolic pathway in cancer cells by inhibiting lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA). However, LDHA is a moonlighting protein which exerts functions also in the nucleus as a factor associated to transcriptional complexes. Here we found that two small molecules which inhibit the enzymatic activity of LDHA hinder the transcription of histone 2B gene independently from the block of aerobic glycolysis. Moreover, we observed that silencing this gene reduces cell replication, hence suggesting that the inhibition of LDHA can also affect the proliferation of normal non-glycolysing dividing cells.

Lactate dehydrogenase inhibition: exploring possible applications beyond cancer treatment.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) inhibition is considered a worthwhile attempt in the development of innovative anticancer strategies. Unfortunately, in spite of the involvement of several research institutions and pharma-companies, the discovery of LDH inhibitors with drug-like properties seems a hardly resolvable challenge. While awaiting new advancements, in the present review we will examine other pathologic conditions characterized by increased glycolysis and LDH activity, which could potentially benefit from LDH inhibition. The rationale for targeting LDH activity in these contexts is the same justifying the LDH-based approach in anticancer therapy: because of the enzyme position at the end of glycolytic pathway, LDH inhibitors are not expected to hinder glucose metabolism of normal cells. Moreover, we will summarize the latest contributions in the discovery of enzyme inhibitors and try to glance over the reasons underlying the complexity of this research.

Lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors sensitize lymphoma cells to cisplatin without enhancing the drug effects on immortalized normal lymphocytes.

Up-regulation of glycolysis, a well recognized hallmark of cancer cells, was also found to be predictive of poor chemotherapy response. This observation suggested the attempt of sensitizing cancer cells to conventional chemotherapeutic agents by inhibiting glucose metabolism. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) inhibition can be a way to hinder glycolysis of cancer cells without affecting the metabolism of normal tissues, which usually does not require this enzymatic activity. In this paper, we showed that two LDH inhibitors (oxamate and galloflavin) can increase the efficacy of cisplatin in cultured Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) cells and that this potentiating effect is not exerted in proliferating normal lymphocytes. This result was explained by the finding that in BL cells LDH inhibition induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which was not evidenced in proliferating normal lymphocytes. In BL cells treated with the association of cisplatin and LDH inhibitors, these ROS can be a further cause of DNA damage, to be added to that produced by cisplatin, leading to the failure of the response repair. At present LDH inhibitors suitable for clinical use are actively searched; our results can allow a better understanding of the potentiality of LDH as a possible target to develop innovative anticancer treatments.

Albumin-drug conjugates in the treatment of hepatic disorders.

INTRODUCTION: This review deals with the use of serum albumin (SA) as a carrier for the selective delivery of drugs to liver cells. AREAS COVERED: The synthesis and properties of the SA conjugates prepared to enhance the performance of the drugs used in the treatment of viral hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), liver micrometastases and hepatic fibrosis are reported. EXPERT OPINION: Studies in humans and laboratory animals demonstrated the capacity of SA conjugates to accomplish a liver targeting of the drugs, but at the same time underscored their limits and drawbacks, which can explain why to date these complexes did not reach a practical application. The major drawback is the need of administration by intravenous route, which prevents long-term daily treatments as required by some liver pathologies, such as chronic virus hepatitis and fibrosis. At present, only a conjugate carrying doxorubicin and addressed to the treatment of HCC showed in laboratory animals a solid potentiality to improve the value of the coupled drug. In the future, conjugation to SA could remain a successful strategy to permit the administration of drugs with rapid resolutive effects inside liver cells without causing severe extrahepatic adverse reactions.

Inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase activity as an approach to cancer therapy.

In the attempt of developing innovative anticancer treatments, growing interest has recently focused on the peculiar metabolic properties of cancer cells. In this context, LDH, which converts pyruvate to lactate at the end of glycolysis, is emerging as one of the most interesting molecular targets for the development of new inhibitors. In fact, because LDH activity is not needed for pyruvate metabolism through the TCA cycle, inhibitors of this enzyme should spare glucose metabolism of normal non-proliferating cells, which usually completely degrade the glucose molecule to CO2. This review is aimed at summarizing the available data on LDH biology in normal and neoplastic cells, which support the anticancer therapeutic approach based on LDH inhibition. These data encouraged pharmaceutical industries and academic institutions in the search of small-molecule inhibitors and promising candidates have recently been identified. The availability of inhibitors with drug-like properties will allow the evaluation in the near future of the real potential of LDH inhibition in anticancer treatment, also making the identification of the most responsive neoplastic conditions possible.

Galloflavin prevents the binding of lactate dehydrogenase A to single stranded DNA and inhibits RNA synthesis in cultured cells.

Lactate dehydrogenase A (LDH-A) binds single stranded DNA (ssDNA) and stimulates cell transcription. Binding is prevented by NADH, suggesting that the coenzyme site is involved in the interaction LDH-A/ssDNA. We recently identified an inhibitor of LDH-A enzymatic activity (Galloflavin, GF) which occupies the NADH site. In the experiments reported here we studied whether GF can also hinder the binding of LDH-A to ssDNA and investigated its effects on RNA synthesis in cultured cells. Using a filter binding assay we observed that 4 µM GF inhibited the binding of human LDH-A to a single stranded [(3)H]DNA sample by 50%. After only 0.5-1h, 50-100 µM GF inhibited RNA synthesis in SW620 cells maintained in a medium in which galactose substituted glucose. In these culture conditions, SW620 cells did not produce lactic acid and effects caused by the inhibition of the enzymatic activity of LDH-A could be excluded. Novel LDH-A inhibitors which hinder aerobic glycolysis of cancer cells are at present actively searched. Our results suggest that: (i) inhibitors which bind the NADH site can exert their antiproliferative activity not only by blocking aerobic glycolysis but also by causing an inhibition of RNA synthesis independent from the effect on glycolysis; (ii) GF can be a useful tool to study the biological role of LDH-A binding to ssDNA.

Galloflavin (CAS 568-80-9): a novel inhibitor of lactate dehydrogenase.

One of the most prominent alterations in cancer cells is their strict dependence on the glycolytic pathway for ATP generation. This observation led to the evaluation of glycolysis inhibitors as potential anticancer agents. The inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a promising way to inhibit tumor cell glucose metabolism without affecting the energetic balance of normal tissues. However, the success of this approach depends chiefly on the availability of inhibitors that display good selectivity. We identified a compound (galloflavin, CAS 568-80-9) which, in contrast to other inhibitors of human LDH, hinders both the A and B isoforms of the enzyme. To determine the mechanism of action, we collected LDH-A and -B inhibition data in competition reactions with pyruvate or NADH and evaluated the results using software for enzyme kinetics analysis. We found that galloflavin inhibits both human LDH isoforms by preferentially binding the free enzyme, without competing with the substrate or cofactor. The calculated Ki values for pyruvate were 5.46 µM (LDH-A) and 15.06 µM (LDH-B). In cultured tumor cells, galloflavin blocked aerobic glycolysis at micromolar concentrations, did not interfere with cell respiration, and induced cell death by triggering apoptosis. To our knowledge, the inhibition of LDH is, to date, the only biochemical effect described for galloflavin. Because galloflavin is not commercially available, we also describe herein a procedure for its synthesis and report its first full chemical characterization.

Effect of sorafenib on the energy metabolism of hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Recent data demonstrated that sorafenib impaired the oxidative phosphorylation of a rat myogenic cell line and suggested that this biochemical lesion can contribute to the cardiac toxicity caused by the drug. With the experiments reported here, we verified whether sorafenib inhibits oxidative phosphorylation also in cells from human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs), which are treated with this drug. By using the HCC cell lines PLC/PRF/5 and SNU-449 we studied the effects of the drug on ATP cellular levels, oxygen consumption and aerobic glycolysis, a metabolic pathway generally used by neoplastic cells to meet their energy demand. The effect of sorafenib on ATP cellular levels was also studied in cells grown in a glucose-free medium, which only derive their energy from oxidative phosphorylation. We found that at clinically relevant concentrations sorafenib hindered oxidative phosphorylation, whereas at the same time stimulated aerobic glycolysis in glucose-grown cells, thus attenuating the cellular ATP depletion. These results support the impairment of oxidative phosphorylation as a mechanism contributing to the antineoplastic activity of sorafenib in the treatment of HCCs.

Inhibition of lactic dehydrogenase as a way to increase the anti-proliferative effect of multi-targeted kinase inhibitors.

Protein kinase inhibitors are a relatively new class of promising anticancer drugs, most of which exert their action by binding to the ATP site on the targeted kinases. We hypothesized that a decrease in ATP levels in neoplastic cells could reduce the competition for the same enzymatic site, thus increasing the efficacy of kinase inhibitors. Using oxamic acid, an inhibitor of lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) which hinders aerobic glycolysis, we decreased ATP levels in PLC/PRF/5 cells (a line from a hepatocellular carcinoma). We found that in these cells oxamic acid potentiated the antiproliferative activity of sorafenib, imatinib and sunitinib, three kinase inhibitors. When aerobic glycolysis was shut down by culturing the cells in the absence of glucose, oxamic acid did not reduce the ATP levels, suggesting that in normal tissues, which do not rely on aerobic glycolysis for their ATP synthesis, the block of LDH should not impair cellular metabolism. In conclusion, the inhibition of LDH could enhance anticancer activity of sorafenib, imatinib and sunitinib without increasing their side effects on normal cells, which in conditions of normal functional activity and sufficient oxygen supply do not need the activity of this enzyme.

Impairment of aerobic glycolysis by inhibitors of lactic dehydrogenase hinders the growth of human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: by reducing the number of ATP molecules produced via aerobic glycolysis, the inhibition of lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) should hinder the growth of neoplastic cells without damaging the normal cells which do not rely on this metabolic pathway for their energetic needs. Here, we studied the effect of oxamic and tartronic acids, 2 inhibitors of LDH, on aerobic glycolysis and cell replication of HepG2 and PLC/PRF/5 cells, 2 lines from human hepatocellular carcinomas. METHODS: aerobic glycolysis was measured by calculating the amounts of lactic acid formed. The effect on replication was assessed by culturing the cells in both standard conditions and glucose-deprived medium, which was used to shut down aerobic glycolysis. RESULTS: the oxamic and tartronic acids inhibited aerobic glycolysis, impaired the growth of both cell lines and also induced an increased expression of p53-upregulated modulator of apoptosis, a signal of cell death. A strong impairment of cell replication by oxamic acid was only found when the cells were cultured in the presence of glucose, indicating that it was for the most part owing to inhibition of aerobic glycolysis. CONCLUSIONS: inhibition of aerobic glycolysis achieved by blocking LDH could be useful in the treatment of human hepatocellular carcinomas. Without interfering with glucose metabolism in normal cells, it could hinder cell growth by itself and could also enhance the chemotherapeutic index of associated anticancer agents by decreasing the levels of ATP selectively in neoplastic cells.

Lactosaminated human albumin, a hepatotropic carrier of drugs.

A selective delivery of drugs to liver can be obtained by conjugation with galactosyl terminating macromolecules. The conjugates selectively enter hepatocytes after interaction of the carrier galactose residues with the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R) present only on these cells. Within hepatocytes the conjugates are transported to lysosomes where the drug is set free from the carrier, becoming concentrated in liver cells. The present article reviews the liver targeting of drugs obtained with lactosaminated albumin (L-SA), a neoglycoprotein exposing galactosyl residues. We report: (1) experiments which demonstrate the antiviral efficacy of the L-H(human)SA-ara-AMP conjugate in laboratory animals and in humans with viral hepatitis; (2) the property of a L-HSA conjugate with fluorodeoxyuridine to produce concentrations of the drug higher in hepatic sinusoids than in systemic circulation, with the potential of accomplishing a loco-regional, noninvasive treatment of liver micrometastases; (3) the increased anticancer activity of doxorubicin (DOXO) when coupled to L-HSA on all the forms of chemically induced rat hepatocellular carcinomas including those which do not express the ASGP-R.

Characterisation of the conjugate of the (6-maleimidocaproyl)hydrazone derivative of doxorubicin with lactosaminated human albumin by 13C NMR spectroscopy.

In order to improve the efficacy of doxorubicin (DOXO) in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinomas, the drug was conjugated with lactosaminated human albumin (L-HSA), a hepatotropic drug carrier. Conjugation was performed using the (6-maleimidocaproyl)hydrazone derivative of the drug (DOXO-EMCH). The maleimide group of DOXO-EMCH reacts with the aminoacidic residues of the carrier forming stable bonds, whereas the hydrazone bond is rapidly hydrolysed in the acidic endosomal and lysosomal compartments of the cells allowing the intracellular release of DOXO. To identify the amino acids of L-HSA involved in the bond with DOXO-EMCH, in the present study we synthesized this compound with the 2,3 carbon atoms of the maleimide moiety enriched in the (13)C isotope and used this labelled DOXO-EMCH to prepare two types of L-HSA conjugate. Type I was prepared in analogy to those studied in the anticancer experiments using tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) to reduce l-cysteine disulfides and make the sulfhydryl groups available for the reaction with DOXO-EMCH; type II was synthesized omitting TCEP. By (13)C NMR spectroscopy we could demonstrate that in type I conjugate cysteine was the only amino acid residue that reacted with DOXO-EMCH, whereas in type II conjugate lysine was the only amino acid in the reaction with DOXO-EMCH. When hydrolysed in an acidic medium to cleave the hydrazone bond, type I conjugate released only DOXO, whereas type II conjugate also released a derivative of the drug.

Doxorubicin coupled to lactosaminated human albumin: a hepatocellular carcinoma targeted drug.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common malignancy worldwide. There is a substantial need for new chemotherapeutic drugs effective against this tumor. Doxorubicin (DOXO), used for chemoembolization of HCCs, is poorly efficacious when administered systemically at conventional doses; dose escalation is hindered by unacceptable toxicity. Here, we review preclinical experiments showing that the efficacy of DOXO against HCCs and its safety increased following conjugation to lactosaminated human albumin (L-HSA). L-HSA-DOXO was initially prepared to improve the anticancer activity of the drug on well-differentiated HCCs, which actively internalize L-HSA by means of the asialoglycoprotein receptor. Unexpectedly, it was found that the conjugate enhanced DOXO concentrations in all forms of HCCs, independently of their differentiation grade.

Doxorubicin coupled to lactosaminated albumin: effect of heterogeneity in drug load on conjugate disposition and hepatocellular carcinoma uptake in rats.

Coupling to lactosaminated human albumin (L-HSA) makes doxorubicin (DOXO) an effective drug against chemically induced rat hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs). In the conjugate there is a large heterogeneity in the number of DOXO molecules bound to one L-HSA molecule. After lyophilization, the molecules with the higher DOXO load form large complexes (C-DOXOL), whereas those with low drug load (C-DOXOS) have the size of the carrier L-HSA. In the present experiments, we demonstrated that in C-DOXOL the molecules are not linked by covalent bonds, but are strongly aggregated probably because of mutual drug-drug interaction between the DOXO residues. In healthy rats and in animals with HCCs which received the same dose (1 microg/g) of DOXO injected in C-DOXOL or in C-DOXOS forms, penetration of the drug in tumors and in tissues was more rapid after administration of the former complex. Three hours after injection of both conjugate forms the intracellular release of DOXO from the carrier was completed. The AUCs from 0.5 to 4h of the levels of the released DOXO in HCCs, surrounding liver and bone marrow of animals injected with C-DOXOL were similar to those calculated in animals given C-DOXOS. This suggests that after administration of the dose of DOXO used in the present experiments the conjugate molecules with lower or higher drug load can exert comparable pharmacological and toxic effects.

Coupling of lactose molecules to the carrier protein hinders the spleen and bone marrow uptake of doxorubicin conjugated with human albumin.

Several attempts have been made to enhance doxorubicin (DOXO) concentrations in tumour cells by drug conjugation with human albumin (HSA). HSA-DOXO has the drawback of causing DOXO accumulation in spleen and bone marrow, with a consequent leucopoenia not produced when lactose molecules are coupled to the carrier protein. In the present experiments we demonstrated that the effect of HSA lactosamination is not a consequence of a more rapid disappearance from the bloodstream of the lactosaminated conjugate (L-HSA-DOXO), which is rapidly internalized by the liver through the asialoglycoprotein receptor, but is due to a hindered uptake by spleen and bone marrow cells caused by the coupled lactose molecules. Experiments in vitro showed that HSA-DOXO produced an inhibition of murine macrophage proliferation not caused by L-HSA-DOXO. This result can be explained by higher amounts of the former conjugate entering in these cells and suggests macrophages as the cell type responsible for the spleen and bone marrow internalization of HSA-DOXO hindered by lactose coupling. Importantly, lactosamination of HSA did not reduce the marked uptake of HSA-DOXO by chemically induced rat hepatocellular carcinoma. L-HSA-DOXO, by avoiding DOXO accumulation in bone marrow is an attractive candidate for clinical trials against tumors which were found to actively internalize this conjugate in laboratory animals, such as hepatocellular carcinoma.

A conjugate of doxorubicin with lactosaminated albumin enhances the drug concentrations in all the forms of rat hepatocellular carcinomas independently of their differentiation grade.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Doxorubicin (DOXO) was coupled to lactosaminated human serum albumin (L-HSA) in order to enhance the drug concentration in the well differentiated hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs), which can accumulate L-HSA through the asialoglycoprotein receptor. In the present experiments we compared the DOXO concentrations produced by this conjugate (L-HSA-DOXO) and by the uncoupled drug in the well, moderately, and poorly differentiated rat HCCs. METHODS: The same dose (1 microg/g) of free or L-HSA coupled-DOXO was injected in rats with HCCs induced by diethylnitrosamine. At different times, the animals were killed and the neoplastic nodules of liver were isolated. Their differentiation grade was determined histologically and their DOXO content was measured. RESULTS: Unexpectedly, we found that also in the poorly differentiated forms of HCCs, which display no or only a poor capacity of accumulating L-HSA, the conjugate raised DOXO levels that were approximately twofold higher than those produced by the free drug. CONCLUSIONS: The conjugate L-HSA-DOXO could improve the potential of DOXO in the treatment of all HCCs, including the poorly differentiated tumors that are the common forms in the advanced disease for which an effective chemotherapy is particularly needed.

Enhanced uptake of lactosaminated human albumin by rat hepatocarcinomas: implications for an improved chemotherapy of primary liver tumors.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The hepatocyte receptor for asialoglycoproteins (ASGP-R) internalizes macromolecules exposing galactosyl residues (MEGRs) which can be used as liver-addressed drug carriers. This receptor was also found on the cells of the large majority of well differentiated hepatocarcinomas (HCCs). The aim of the present experiments was to ascertain whether ASGP-R of HCCs is functionally active and these tumors can internalize higher quantities of MEGRs than extra-hepatic tissues. METHODS: We injected radioactive lactosaminated human albumin (L-HSA) in rats with HCCs produced by nitroso-diethylamine and measured the radioactivity of tumors, surrounding liver, heart, intestine and kidney. L-HSA is a MEGR successfully used in humans as a hepatotropic drug carrier. RESULTS: The levels of radioactivity of HCCs were two to three times lower than those of surrounding liver, but several times higher than those of extra-hepatic tissues. L-HSA accumulation in the tumors mainly occurred via the ASGP-R, as indicated by the 20 times lower penetration of non-lactosaminated HSA. L-HSA uptake by the well-differentiated tumors were four times higher compared with that by the poorly differentiated forms. CONCLUSIONS: The present results suggest that in the chemotherapy of HCCs expressing the ASGP-R the extra-hepatic toxicity of anticancer agents can be reduced by conjugation to L-HSA.

Doxorubicin coupled to lactosaminated albumin inhibits the growth of hepatocellular carcinomas induced in rats by diethylnitrosamine.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The hepatocyte receptor for asialoglycoproteins internalizes galactosyl terminating macromolecules which can be used as hepatotropic drug carriers. Since this receptor is also expressed on the cells of well differentiated human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs), we studied whether conjugation of doxorubicin (DOXO) with lactosaminated human albumin (L-HSA) increases the drug efficacy on HCCs induced in rats by diethylnitrosamine (DENA). METHODS: DENA was given in the drinking water for 8 weeks. One week after the last day of DENA administration, animals were randomly assigned to three groups. Each group was administered with either saline, free or coupled DOXO (1 microg/g). Rats received 4 weekly intravenous injections. One week after the last administration, rats were killed and HCC development was evaluated by counting the tumor nodules on the surface of hepatic lobes. RESULTS: In rats treated with L-HSA coupled DOXO the number of neoplastic nodules was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that counted in animals injected with saline or with free DOXO. Coupled DOXO did not decrease body rat weight, which was markedly reduced by the free drug. CONCLUSIONS: Conjugation with L-HSA increased the antineoplastic efficacy and decreased the systemic toxicity of DOXO administered to rats with HCCs produced by DENA.

A novel method for coupling doxorubicin to lactosaminated human albumin by an acid sensitive hydrazone bond: synthesis, characterization and preliminary biological properties of the conjugate.

The expression of the asialoglycoprotein receptor on the cells of the large majority of the well differentiated hepatocellular carcinomas can be exploited to improve the chemotherapy of these tumours by coupling anticancer agents to macromolecules taken up by the receptor. In line with this approach, in previous experiments we coupled doxorubicin (DOXO) to lactosaminated human albumin (L-HSA) using the (6-maleimidocaproyl)hydrazone derivative of the drug as an acid sensitive linker. Encouraging results were obtained in laboratory animals using L-HSA-DOXO. This conjugate, however, has the disadvantage of a difficult synthesis, which requires protein thiolation with iminothiolane and can hinder its preparation on a large scale. Here we describe a very simple method of coupling. The HS-groups required for the reaction with the maleimide moiety of DOXO-EMCH are made available in L-HSA by a cleavage of the protein disulphides achieved with tris(2-carboxyethyl) phosphine (TCEP). Contrary to thiolic reducing agents, the use of TCEP eliminates the need of an inert atmosphere and allows a one-step coupling reaction, without purification of the reduced protein before the addition of DOXO-EMCH. As the previous L-HSA-DOXO conjugate, the new conjugate accomplishes a very efficient liver targeting of the drug. This novel method of synthesis should facilitate the preparation of L-HSA-DOXO in the amounts required for clinical studies.