Glutamine triggers long-lasting increase in striatal network activity in vitro.

Accumulation of ammonium and glutamine in blood and brain is a key factor in hepatic encephalopathy (HE) - a neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by various cognitive and motor deficits. MRI imaging identified abnormalities notably in the basal ganglia of HE patients, including its major input station, the striatum. While neurotoxic effects of ammonia have been extensively studied, glutamine is primarily perceived as "detoxified" form of ammonia. We applied ammonium and glutamine to striatal and cortical cells from newborn rats cultured on microelectrode arrays. Glutamine, but not ammonium significantly increased spontaneous spike rate with a long-lasting excitation outlasting washout. This effect was more prominent in striatal than in cortical cultures. Calcium imaging revealed that glutamine application caused a rise in intracellular calcium that depended both on system A amino acid transport and activation of ionotropic glutamate receptors. This pointed to downstream glutamate release that was triggered by intracellular glutamine. Using an enzymatic assay kit we confirmed glutamine-provoked glutamate release from striatal cells. Real-time PCR and immunocytochemistry demonstrated the presence of vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT1 and VGLUT2) necessary for synaptic glutamate release in striatal neurons. We conclude that extracellular glutamine is taken up by neurons, triggers synaptic release of glutamate which is then taken up by astrocytes and again converted to glutamine. This feedback-loop causes a sustained long-lasting excitation of network activity. Thus, apart from ammonia also its "detoxified" form glutamine might be responsible for the neuropsychiatric symptoms in HE.

High-frequency voltage oscillations in cultured astrocytes.

Because of their close interaction with neuronal physiology, astrocytes can modulate brain function in multiple ways. Here, we demonstrate a yet unknown astrocytic phenomenon: Astrocytes cultured on microelectrode arrays (MEAs) exhibited extracellular voltage fluctuations in a broad frequency spectrum (100-600 Hz) after electrical stimulation. These aperiodic high-frequency oscillations (HFOs) could last several seconds and did not spread across the MEA. The voltage-gated calcium channel antagonist cilnidipine dose-dependently decreased the power of the oscillations. While intracellular calcium was pivotal, incubation with bafilomycin A1 showed that vesicular release of transmitters played only a minor role in the emergence of HFOs. Gap junctions and volume-regulated anionic channels had just as little functional impact, which was demonstrated by the addition of carbenoxolone (100 µmol/L) and NPPB (100 µmol/L). Hyperpolarization with low potassium in the extracellular solution (2 mmol/L) dramatically raised oscillation power. A similar effect was seen when we added extra sodium (+50 mmol/L) or if we replaced it with NMDG(+) (50 mmol/L). The purinergic receptor antagonist PPADS suppressed the oscillation power, while the agonist ATP (100 µmol/L) had only an increasing effect when the bath solution pH was slightly lowered to pH 7.2. From these observations, we conclude that astrocytic voltage oscillations are triggered by activation of voltage-gated calcium channels and driven by a downstream influx of cations through channels that are permeable for large ions such as NMDG(+). Most likely candidates are subtypes of pore-forming P2X channels with a low affinity for ATP.

Freshly frozen E18 rat cortical cells can generate functional neural networks after standard cryopreservation and thawing procedures.

Primary dissociated brain tissue from rodents is widely used in a variety of different scientific methods to investigate cellular processes in vitro. Often, for this purpose cell cultures need to be generated just on time, requiring extensive animal lab infrastructure. We show here that cryopreservation and thawing of dissociated tissue from rat cerebral cortex at embryonic day 18 is feasible without affecting its ability to form functional neuronal networks in vitro. Vitality of fresh and re-thawed cortical cells was comparable, assessed by CellTiter-Blue-assay, CytoTox-ONE assay, immunocytochemical characterization and in vitro neuronal network activity recordings on microelectrode arrays. These findings suggest that planning and execution of experiments might be considerably facilitated by using cryo-preserved neurons instead of acutely dissociated neural cultures due to fewer logistical issues with regard to animal breeding and pregnancy timed preparations.

GABAA receptors involved in sleep and anaesthesia: ß1- versus ß3-containing assemblies.

The histaminergic neurons of the posterior hypothalamus (tuberomamillary nucleus-TMN) control wakefulness, and their silencing through activation of GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)R) induces sleep and is thought to mediate sedation under propofol anaesthesia. We have previously shown that the ß1 subunit preferring fragrant dioxane derivatives (FDD) are highly potent modulators of GABA(A)R in TMN neurons. In recombinant receptors containing the ß3N265M subunit, FDD action is abolished and GABA potency is reduced. Using rat, wild-type and ß3N265M mice, FDD and propofol, we explored the relative contributions of ß1- and ß3-containing GABA(A)R to synaptic transmission from the GABAergic sleep-on ventrolateral preoptic area neurons to TMN. In ß3N265M mice, GABA potency remained unchanged in TMN neurons, but it was decreased in cultured posterior hypothalamic neurons with impaired modulation of GABA(A)R by propofol. Spontaneous and evoked GABAergic synaptic currents (IPSC) showed ß1-type pharmacology, with the same effects achieved by 3 µM propofol and 10 µM PI24513. Propofol and the FDD PI24513 suppressed neuronal firing in the majority of neurons at 5 and 100 µM, and in all cells at 10 and 250 µM, respectively. FDD given systemically in mice induced sedation but not anaesthesia. Propofol-induced currents were abolished (1-6 µM) or significantly reduced (12 µM) in ß3N265M mice, whereas gating and modulation of GABA(A)R by PI24513 as well as modulation by propofol were unchanged. In conclusion, ß1-containing (FDD-sensitive) GABA(A)R represent the major receptor pool in TMN neurons responding to GABA, while ß3-containing (FDD-insensitive) receptors are gated by low micromolar doses of propofol. Thus, sleep and anaesthesia depend on different GABA(A)R types.

Fragrant dioxane derivatives identify beta1-subunit-containing GABAA receptors.

Nineteen GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) subunits are known in mammals with only a restricted number of functionally identified native combinations. The physiological role of beta1-subunit-containing GABA(A)Rs is unknown. Here we report the discovery of a new structural class of GABA(A)R positive modulators with unique beta1-subunit selectivity: fragrant dioxane derivatives (FDD). At heterologously expressed alpha1betaxgamma2L (x-for 1,2,3) GABA(A)R FDD were 6 times more potent at beta1- versus beta2- and beta3-containing receptors. Serine at position 265 was essential for the high sensitivity of the beta1-subunit to FDD and the beta1N286W mutation nearly abolished modulation; vice versa the mutation beta3N265S shifted FDD sensitivity toward the beta1-type. In posterior hypothalamic neurons controlling wakefulness GABA-mediated whole-cell responses and GABAergic synaptic currents were highly sensitive to FDD, in contrast to beta1-negative cerebellar Purkinje neurons. Immunostaining for the beta1-subunit and the potency of FDD to modulate GABA responses in cultured hypothalamic neurons was drastically diminished by beta1-siRNA treatment. In conclusion, with the help of FDDs we reveal a functional expression of beta1-containing GABA(A)Rs in the hypothalamus, offering a new tool for studies on the functional diversity of native GABA(A)Rs.

Developmental alterations of DHPG-induced long-term depression of corticostriatal synaptic transmission: switch from NMDA receptor-dependent towards CB1 receptor-dependent plasticity.

In animal models of early Parkinson's disease (PD), motor deficits are accompanied by excessive striatal glutamate release. Blockade of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), endocannabinoid degradation and nitric oxide (NO) synthesis combats PD symptoms. Activation of group I mGluRs with the specific agonist 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) induces long-term depression of corticostriatal transmission (LTD(DHPG)) in the adult mouse striatum requiring NO synthesis downstream to cannabinoid CB1 receptor (CB1R) activation suggesting a dual role for LTD(DHPG): neuroprotective by down-regulation of glutamatergic transmission and, under certain circumstances, neurotoxic by release of NO. We report now that LTD(DHPG) undergoes a developmental switch from N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor-dependent/CB1R-independent to NMDA receptor-independent/CB1R-dependent plasticity with NO playing an essential role for LTD(DHPG) at all developmental stages. The gain in function of CB1R is explained by their developmental up-regulation evaluated with real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. These findings are relevant for the pathophysiology and therapy of PD as they link the activation of group I mGluRs, endocannabinoid release, and striatal NO production.

Development and pharmacological modulation of embryonic stem cell-derived neuronal network activity.

Embryonic stem cells can be differentiated into neurons of diverse neurotransmitter-specific phenotypes. While the time course of functional progression of ES cell-derived neural precursors towards mature neurons has been described in detail on single-cell level, the temporal development and pharmacological modulation of ES cell-derived neuronal network activity have not been explored yet. Neuronal network activity can be assessed by the microelectrode array (MEA) technology that allows simultaneous monitoring of the electrical activity exhibited by entire populations of neurons over several weeks or months in vitro. We demonstrate here that ES cell-derived neural precursors cultured on MEAs for 5 to 6 weeks develop neuronal networks with oscillating and synchronous spike patterns via distinct states of activity and change electrophysiological characteristics even after 5 to 6 weeks in culture pointing towards late maturational processes. These processes were accompanied by an increasing density of presynaptic vesicles. Furthermore, we demonstrated that ES cell-derived network activity was sensitive to synaptically acting drugs indicating that pharmacologically susceptible neuronal networks were generated. Thus, the MEA technology represents a powerful tool to describe the temporal progression of stem cell-derived neural populations towards mature, functioning neuronal networks that can be applied to investigate pharmacologically active compounds.

P2Y receptor-mediated excitation in the posterior hypothalamus.

Histaminergic neurons located in the posterior hypothalamus (tuberomamillary nucleus, TMN) project widely through the whole brain controlling arousal and attention. They are tonically active during wakefulness but cease firing during sleep. As a homeostatic theory of sleep involves ATP depletion and adenosine accumulation in the brain, we investigated the role of ATP and its analogues as well as adenosine on neuronal activity in the TMN. We show increased firing of rat TMN neurons by ATP, ADP, UTP and 2meSATP, indicating activation of receptors belonging to the P2Y family. Adenosine affected neither membrane potential nor firing of these cells. Single-cell reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction revealed that P2Y1 and P2Y4 are prevailing receptors in TMN neurons. P2Y1 receptor mRNA was detected with a higher frequency in 2-week-old than in 4-week-old rats; in accordance, 2meSATP was more potent than ATP. Semi-quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed a developmental downregulation of mRNA levels for P2Y1 and P2Y4 receptors. Immunocytochemistry demonstrated neuronal and glial localization of the P2Y1 receptor protein. Network activity measured with multielectrode arrays in primary cultures made from the posterior hypothalamus was enhanced by UTP and 2meSATP (P2Y4 and P2Y1 agonists, respectively). ATP caused an inhibition of firing, which was reversed in the presence of suramin or gabazine [gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor antagonist], indicating that GABAergic neurons are preferentially activated by ATP in this network. Excitation of the wake-active TMN neurons by nucleotides and the lack of adenosine action may be important factors in sleep-wake regulation.

Neuronal network properties of human teratocarcinoma cell line-derived neurons.

Understanding the structural and functional development of neurons in networks has a high impact to estimate the potentials for restorative therapies. Neurons derived from the human NT2 cell line (hNT) formed networks with a clustered neuritic architecture in vitro, whereas primary dissociated embryonic rat cortical neurons (Cx) displayed a more homogenous cell assembly. Spontaneous spikes of both cell types were recorded on microelectrode arrays within 2 weeks after seeding, but hNT showed a mostly uncorrelated firing pattern in contrast to Cx with highly synchronized bursting. hNT neurons were less sensitive to TTX (IC50 = 5.7 +/- 0.1 nM vs. IC50 = 1.1 +/- 0.2 nM), magnesium (IC50 = 1.83 +/- 0.01 mM vs. IC50 = 0.161 +/- 0.023 mM), and APV (IC50 > 100 microM vs. IC50 = 18 microM). We conclude that embryonic cortical neurons and hNT neurons have different network properties. This should be carefully considered before hNT neurons are used in therapeutic approaches, e g., central nervous system (CNS) grafting.

Implications for hyperhomocysteinemia: not homocysteine but its oxidized forms strongly inhibit neuronal network activity.

Severe hyperhomocysteinemia (50-200 microM) often presents itself with acute neuronal dysfunction including seizures and psychosis. Its moderate form (15-50 microM) is associated with cognitive impairment and dementia. We investigated the neuropharmacological effects of homocysteine and its oxidized forms, homocysteinesulfinic acid (HCSA) and homocysteic acid (HCA), on neuronal network function utilizing dissociated cortical neurons from embryonic Wistar rats on microelectrode arrays. All substances inhibited dose-dependently and reversibly spontaneous neuronal network activity within seconds: L-HCSA and L-HCA blocked spontaneous spike rate (SSR) significantly at very low concentrations, with an IC50 of 1.9 and 1.3 microM, respectively; whereas the dose-response curve of D,L-homocysteine revealed an IC50 of 401 microM. These effects were antagonized by 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV) pointing to the NMDA receptor as mediator of this fast and reversible inhibition of network activity. We conclude that a neuronal dysfunction observed in hyperhomocysteinemia is likely due to HCSA and HCA since effective concentrations of homocysteine are not reached in patients.

Cryopreserved rat cortical cells develop functional neuronal networks on microelectrode arrays.

Neurons growing on microelectrode arrays (MEAs) are promising tools to investigate principal neuronal network mechanisms and network responses to pharmaceutical substances. However, broad application of these tools, e.g. in pharmaceutical substance screening, requires neuronal cells that provide stable activity on MEAs. Cryopreserved cortical neurons (CCx) from embryonic rats were cultured on MEAs and their immunocytochemical and electrophysiological properties were compared with acutely dissociated neurons (Cx). Both cell types formed neuritic networks and expressed the neuron-specific markers microtubule associated protein 2, synaptophysin, neurofilament and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Spontaneous spike activity (SSA) was recorded after 9 up to 74 days in vitro (DIV) in CCx and from 5 to 30 DIV in Cx, respectively. Cx and CCx exhibited synchronized burst activity with similar spiking characteristics. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) abolished the SSA of both cell types reversibly. In CCx SSA-inhibition occurred with an IC50 of 1.1 nM for TTX, 161 microM for magnesium, 18 microM for D,L-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV) and 1 microM for GABA. CCx cells were easy to handle and developed long living, stable and active neuronal networks on MEAs with similar characteristics as Cx. Thus, these neurochips seem to be suitable for studying neuronal network properties and screening in pharmaceutical research.