Increased risk of HIV in women experiencing physical partner violence in Nairobi, Kenya.

As part of a study on etiology of sexually transmitted infections (STI) among 520 women presenting at the STI clinic in Nairobi, data on partner violence and its correlates were analyzed. Prevalence of lifetime physical violence was 26%, mainly by an intimate partner (74%). HIV seropositive women had an almost twofold increase in lifetime partner violence. Women with more risky sexual behavior such as early sexual debut, number of sex partners, history of condom use and of STI, experienced more partner violence. Parity and miscarriage were associated with a history of lifetime violence. We found an inverse association between schooling and level of violence. Six percent of the women had been raped. Gender-based violence screening and services should be integrated into voluntary counseling and testing programs as well as in reproductive health programs. Multi-sector approaches are needed to change prevailing attitudes towards violence against women.

Monthly antibiotic chemoprophylaxis and incidence of sexually transmitted infections and HIV-1 infection in Kenyan sex workers: a randomized controlled trial.

CONTEXT: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are common in female sex workers (FSWs) and may enhance susceptibility to infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). OBJECTIVE: To examine regular antibiotic prophylaxis in FSWs as a strategy for reducing the incidence of bacterial STIs and HIV-1. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted between 1998-2002 among FSWs in an urban slum area of Nairobi, Kenya. Of 890 FSWs screened, 466 who were seronegative for HIV-1 infection were enrolled and randomly assigned to receive azithromycin (n = 230) or placebo (n = 236). Groups were well matched at baseline for sexual risk taking and STI rates. INTERVENTION: Monthly oral administration of 1 g of azithromycin or identical placebo, as directly observed therapy. All participants were provided with free condoms, risk-reduction counseling, and STI case management. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary study end point was incidence of HIV-1 infection. Secondary end points were the incidence of STIs due to Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Trichomonas vaginalis, Treponema pallidum, and Haemophilus ducreyi, as well as bacterial vaginosis. Analysis of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection was performed post hoc. RESULTS: Seventy-three percent of participants (n = 341) were followed up for 2 or more years or until they reached an administrative trial end point. Incidence of HIV-1 did not differ between treatment and placebo groups (4% [19 cases per 473 person-years of follow-up] vs 3.2% [16 cases per 495 person-years of follow-up] rate ratio [RR], 1.2; 95% CI, 0.6-2.5). Incident HIV-1 infection was associated with preceding infection with N gonorrhoeae (rate ratio [RR], 4.9; 95% CI, 1.7-14.3) or C trachomatis (RR, 3.0; 95% CI, 1.1-8.9). There was a reduced incidence in the treatment group of infection with N gonorrhoeae (RR, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.31-0.68), C trachomatis (RR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.26-0.57), and T vaginalis (RR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.40-0.78). The seroprevalence of HSV-2 infection at enrollment was 72.7%, and HSV-2 infection at baseline was independently associated with HIV-1 acquisition (RR, 6.3; 95% CI, 1.5-27.1). CONCLUSIONS: Despite an association between bacterial STIs and acquisition of HIV-1 infection, the addition of monthly azithromycin prophylaxis to established HIV-1 risk reduction strategies substantially reduced the incidence of STIs but did not reduce the incidence of HIV-1. Prevalent HSV-2 infection may have been an important cofactor in acquisition of HIV-1.

Reduced HIV risk-taking and low HIV incidence after enrollment and risk-reduction counseling in a sexually transmitted disease prevention trial in Nairobi, Kenya.

There is an urgent need in sub-Saharan Africa to develop more effective methods of HIV prevention, including improved strategies of sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention or an HIV vaccine. The efficacy of these strategies may be tested through clinical trials within cohorts at high risk for STI and HIV, such as female commercial sex workers. For ethical reasons, standard HIV prevention services, including access to free condoms, risk-reduction counseling, and STI therapy, will generally be offered to all study subjects. Because study subjects would often not otherwise have access to these prevention services, it is possible that enrollment in such clinical trials will itself reduce incidence rates of STI and HIV below expected levels, reducing the power to test the efficacy of the randomized intervention. We show that the provision of standard HIV prevention services as part of a randomized STI/HIV prevention trial is temporally associated with a dramatic reduction in sexual risk-taking, and that this reduction is directly associated with reduced STI incidence. This finding should be considered in the design of clinical trials with an endpoint of HIV incidence, in particular HIV preventive vaccine trials.

Health-seeking and sexual behaviors among primary healthcare patients in Nairobi, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Health-seeking and sexual behaviors are important elements in the control of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). GOAL: To examine patterns of health-seeking behavior and related sexual behavior relevant to improved prevention and care among patients attending primary healthcare (PHC) clinics. STUDY DESIGN: A questionnaire covering social, demographic, and healthcare-seeking and sexual behavior information was administered to 555 patients attending three primary healthcare clinics in low socioeconomic areas of Nairobi, Kenya. RESULTS: Women's knowledge about health in general and STIs in particular was poor. A major gender difference in delay of health seeking for STIs was observed (5 days for men versus 14 days for women). Significantly more men than women reported a history of STIs (68% versus 47%; P = 0.04). Men reported more extramarital affairs (17% versus 8%; P < 0.001). A high prevalence of gonorrhea (3%) and chlamydia (6%) was found in this population, with no difference between the genders. The urine dipstick was ineffective for the detection of these STIs. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for better understanding of behavioral factors, as well as gender and social aspects of health care. Health education and health promotion in these areas should be strengthened. Improved screening tests are needed for the detection of STI.