The Behavioral Cost of Care: Changes in Maintenance Behavior during Equine-Assisted Interventions.

This study examined human-animal symbiosis in an animal-assisted intervention through observations of animal maintenance behaviors. The rise of psychotherapy, learning, and recreation incorporating animals warrants exploration of the welfare of the animals involved in these interventions. The analysis of welfare in multispecies engagements can be discussed in terms of symbiosis. Regarding an intervention's animal provider (e.g., therapy horse) and human recipient (psychotherapy client), the balance of cost and benefit is important. Research describing human and animal interactive behavior during interventions is limited, whether focusing on client outcomes or animal welfare. The present study adapted ethological methods to study humans and animals in an equine-assisted intervention, observing equine maintenance behaviors and equid-human interactive behavior. Maintenance behaviors were recorded before, during, and after equine-assisted (psychosocial) learning sessions with youth, providing 1600 observations. Equine alertness, eating behavior, and ambulation varied significantly before, during, and after the equine-assisted sessions. Such interruptions of typical behavior are an important aspect of welfare and unit of analysis when examining symbiotic relationships. A total of 267 sequences of equid-human approach-response behavior were also recorded, indicating that human-animal interaction was predominantly from humans toward equids. Equids' dominant response to human approach was no response, followed by avoidance, while humans' dominant response to equid approach was reciprocation. The findings are discussed in terms of symbiosis and animal welfare.

Defining Terms Used for Animals Working in Support Roles for People with Support Needs.

The nomenclature used to describe animals working in roles supporting people can be confusing. The same term may be used to describe different roles, or two terms may mean the same thing. This confusion is evident among researchers, practitioners, and end users. Because certain animal roles are provided with legal protections and/or government-funding support in some jurisdictions, it is necessary to clearly define the existing terms to avoid confusion. The aim of this paper is to provide operationalized definitions for nine terms, which would be useful in many world regions: "assistance animal", "companion animal", "educational/school support animal", "emotional support animal", "facility animal", "service animal", "skilled companion animal", "therapy animal", and "visiting/visitation animal". At the International Society for Anthrozoology (ISAZ) conferences in 2018 and 2020, over 100 delegates participated in workshops to define these terms, many of whom co-authored this paper. Through an iterative process, we have defined the nine terms and explained how they differ from each other. We recommend phasing out two terms (i.e., "skilled companion animal" and "service animal") due to overlap with other terms that could potentially exacerbate confusion. The implications for several regions of the world are discussed.

It can W8: A community intervention to decrease distracted driving.

Researchers tested an intervention to decrease cell-phone use while driving on a university campus. A total of 3,827 driving observations were recorded on a campus roadway over a three-week period. The campus intervention, consisting of fear appeals, pledges, and behavioral prompts, was tested using an ABA reversal design (Baseline-Intervention-Baseline) with observed cell-phone use as the dependent measure. A Chi-Square test of independence indicated the percentage of drivers talking on a cell phone decreased significantly from 8.5% of 945 drivers at Baseline to 5.5% of 1,428 drivers following the Intervention. In contrast, the percentage of drivers observed texting increased significantly from 4% of 945 drivers at Baseline to 6.2% of 1,428 drivers following the Intervention. Additionally, safety-belt use was associated with the type of phone use observed. Findings were significantly different for women versus men. Results are discussed in the context of behavioral community intervention and gender differences in traffic-safety behavior.

Examining university students' sneezing and coughing etiquette.

University students' cough etiquette (CE) was observed and compared with the standards of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Contrary to the CDC's recommendations, most students covered their mouth with their hands (53.3%) or did not cover at all (23.5%). Less than one-quarter of students used a sleeve arm, elbow, or tissue as advised by the CDC. Sex analysis revealed women were more likely to use a hand cover than men, whereas men were twice as likely to sneeze or cough into the air. Future research to study and improve student CE is encouraged.

Effects of Response Cost and Socially-Assisted Interventions on Hand-Hygiene Behavior of University Students.

A field study was conducted to examine the effect of interventions to increase hand-hygiene behavior of university students. Student patrons of a university cafeteria were observed during lunch. Across several phases, researchers observed and recorded the number of students (a) entering the restroom to wash hands and (b) using a hand-sanitizer gel. Interventions included an informational poster, hand-sanitizer dispenser, and change agent to increase hand-hygiene behavior. Results showed that the presence of a strategically placed hand-sanitizer dispenser was effective in increasing hand-hygiene behavior from 1.52% to over 60% (average n = 208 students per day). Participants were particularly responsive to the hand-sanitizer dispenser when combined with a change agent. Meanwhile, the tested interventions were ineffective in increasing the number of students entering a restroom to hand wash. The results are discussed regarding response cost and socially-mediated consequences of change agents.

Intervening to decrease alcohol abuse at university parties: differential reinforcement of intoxication level.

This quasi-experimental field study assessed whether an incentive/reward intervention can change the drinking behavior and the subsequent levels of intoxication among college students attending fraternity parties. A total of 356 blood alcohol concentration (BAC) assessments, using hand-held breathalyzers. were obtained at two baseline and at two intervention parties at the same fratenity house. At the intervention parties, the students were informed they could win a cash prize if their BAC was below .05, and they were given nomograms to aid in monitoring their levels of intoxication. Mean BAC and the percentage of partiers with intoxication levels above .05 were significantly lower at the two intervention parties. More than twice as many partygoers were legally intoxicated (i.e., BAC > .08) at the two baseline parties than at the two intervention parties. indicating a clinically significant impact of the incentive/reward intervention. Greek-life students, in particular, were significantly less intoxicated at intervention parties, compared to baseline parties (p < .001).

Do the designated drivers of college students stay sober?

PROBLEM: By numerous accounts, alcohol abuse is considered the number one drug problem facing young people today. Alcohol consumption and its negative consequences, especially those due to drinking and driving, continue to have devastating effects on the college student population. METHOD: This field study examined the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels of male and female designated drivers (DD), non-DD, and their respective passengers as they were leaving drinking establishments in a university town. Also investigated were the effects of group size and gender on DD use. RESULTS: A 2 Gender x 2 Driver type (DD vs. non-DD) analysis of variance (ANOVA) for BAC indicated significant main effects for Gender and Driver type, with higher BAC for men and non-DD (p's<.001). A significant Gender x Driver type interaction (p<.05) was primarily due to female DD having lower BAC than male DD. In addition, larger groups were more likely to have a DD. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Results indicate that the success of DD programs may be influenced by group size and a DD's gender. While larger groups are more likely to have a DD, students riding home with a male DD may still be at risk for the negative consequences of drunk driving.