Corrosion behaviour and cell interaction of Ti-6Al-4V alloy prepared by two techniques of 3D printing.

3D printing seems to be the technology of the future for the preparation of metallic implants. For such applications, corrosion behaviour is pivotal. However, little is published on this topic and with inconsistent results. Therefore, we carried out a complex study in which we compared two techniques of the 3D printing technology - selective laser melting and electron beam melting. The corrosion behaviour was studied in physiological solution by standard electrochemical techniques and susceptibility to localised corrosion was estimated too. All samples showed typical passive behaviour. Localised corrosion was shown to be possible on the original as-printed surfaces. Corrosion experiments were repeated tree times. To reveal possible negative effects of 3D printing on cytocompatibility, direct in vitro tests were performed with U-2 OS cells. The cells showed good viability and proliferation, but their growth was impeded by surface unevenness. Our results suggest that both techniques are suitable for implants production. Statistical evaluation was performed by ANOVA followed by Tukey's test.

The Use of Selective Laser Melting to Increase the Performance of AlSi9Cu3Fe Alloy.

For the first time, the comprehensive characterization of the additively manufactured AlSi9Cu3Fe alloy is reported in this paper. Conventionally, the AlSi9Cu3(Fe) alloy is prepared by high-pressure die casting (HPDC), but this technology largely does not offer such opportunities as additive manufacturing (AM) does, especially in the design of new lightweight parts. In the present paper, testing samples were prepared by selective laser melting (SLM), one of the AM technologies, and characterized in terms of their microstructure (by means of light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy in combination with analytical techniques for evaluation of chemical and phase composition) and mechanical properties (static tension, compression, and hardness). All the characteristics were compared with the HPDC reference material. Our study showed an excellent improvement both in strength (374 ± 11 MPa compared to 257 ± 17 MPa) and plasticity (1.9 ± 0.2% compared to 1.2 ± 0.5%) of the material thanks to its very fine and distinctive microstructure.

Influence of Inherent Surface and Internal Defects on Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Ti6Al4V Alloy: Comparison between Selective Laser Melting and Electron Beam Melting.

Additive manufacture (AM) appears to be the most suitable technology to produce sophisticated, high quality, lightweight parts from Ti6Al4V alloy. However, the fatigue life of AM parts is of concern. In our study, we focused on a comparison of two techniques of additive manufacture-selective laser melting (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM)-in terms of the mechanical properties during both static and dynamic loading. All of the samples were untreated to focus on the influence of surface condition inherent to SLM and EBM. The EBM samples were studied in the as-built state, while SLM was followed by heat treatment. The resulting similarity of microstructures led to comparable mechanical properties in tension, but, due to differences in surface roughness and specific internal defects, the fatigue strength of the EBM samples reached only half the value of the SLM samples. Higher surface roughness that is inherent to EBM contributed to multiple initiations of fatigue cracks, while only one crack initiated on the SLM surface. Also, facets that were formed by an intergranular cleavage fracture were observed in the EBM samples.

Novel Approach in the Use of Plasma Spray: Preparation of Bulk Titanium for Bone Augmentations.

Thermal plasma spray is a common, well-established technology used in various application fields. Nevertheless, in our work, this technology was employed in a completely new way; for the preparation of bulk titanium. The aim was to produce titanium with properties similar to human bone to be used for bone augmentations. Titanium rods sprayed on a thin substrate wire exerted a porosity of about 15%, which yielded a significant decrease of Young's modulus to the bone range and provided rugged topography for enhanced biological fixation. For the first verification of the suitability of the selected approach, tests of the mechanical properties in terms of compression, bending, and impact were carried out, the surface was characterized, and its compatibility with bone cells was studied. While preserving a high enough compressive strength of 628 MPa, the elastic modulus reached 11.6 GPa, thus preventing a stress-shielding effect, a generally known problem of implantable metals. U-2 OS and Saos-2 cells derived from bone osteosarcoma grown on the plasma-sprayed surface showed good viability.

Promising characteristics of gradient porosity Ti-6Al-4V alloy prepared by SLM process.

Porous structures, manufactured of a biocompatible metal, mimicking human bone structure are the future of orthopedic implantology. Fully porous materials, however, suffer from certain drawbacks. To overcome these, gradient in structure can be prepared. With gradient in porosity mechanical properties can be optimized to an appropriate value, implant can be attributed a similar gradient macrostructure as bone, tissue adhesion may be promoted and also various modification with organic or inorganic substances are possible. In this study, additive technology selective laser melting (SLM) was used to produce three types of gradient porosity model specimens of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V. As this technology has the potential to prepare complex structures in the near-net form, to control porosity, pore size and shape, it represents a promising option. The first part of the research work was focused on the characterization of the material itself in the as-produced state, only with heat treatment applied. The second part dealt with the influence of porosity on mechanical properties. The study has shown SLM brings significant changes in the surface chemistry. Despite this finding, titanium alloy retained its cytocompatibility, as it was outlined by in vitro tests with U-2 OS cells. With introduced porosity yield strength, ultimate strength and stiffness showed linear decrease, both in tension and compression. With respect to the future use in the form of orthopedic implant, especially reduction in Young's modulus down to the human bone value (30.5±2GPa) is very appreciated as the stress-shielding effect followed by possible implant loosening is limited.

Highly porous, low elastic modulus 316L stainless steel scaffold prepared by selective laser melting.

Recently, porous metallic materials have been extensively studied as candidates for use in the fabrication of scaffolds and augmentations to repair trabecular bone defects, e.g. in surroundings of joint replacements. Fabricating these complex structures by using common approaches (e.g., casting and machining) is very challenging. Therefore, rapid prototyping techniques, such as selective laser melting (SLM), have been investigated for these applications. In this study, we characterized a highly porous (87 vol.%) 316L stainless steel scaffold prepared by SLM. 316L steel was chosen because it presents a biomaterial still widely used for fabrication of joint replacements and, from the practical point of view, use of the same material for fabrication of an augmentation and a joint replacement is beneficial for corrosion prevention. The results are compared to the reported properties of two representative nonporous 316L stainless steels prepared either by SLM or casting and subsequent hot forging. The microstructural and mechanical properties and the surface chemical composition and interaction with the cells were investigated. The studied material exhibited mechanical properties that were similar to those of trabecular bone (compressive modulus of elasticity ~0.15GPa, compressive yield strength ~3MPa) and cytocompatibility after one day that was similar to that of wrought 316L stainless steel, which is a commonly used biomaterial. Based on the obtained results, SLM is a suitable method for the fabrication of porous 316L stainless steel scaffolds with highly porous structures.

Influence of surface pre-treatment on the cytocompatibility of a novel biodegradable ZnMg alloy.

Degradable zinc-based alloys with an appropriate corrosion rate are promising materials for the preparation of temporary orthopaedic implants. Previously, we prepared and characterised a novel Zn1.5Mg alloy. This paper is focused on the characterisation of this alloy after a surface pre-treatment, which should mimic processes occurring in vivo. The samples of the Zn1.5Mg alloy were immersed in a simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37°C for 14days in order to form a protective layer of corrosion products. Thereafter, these samples were used for the corrosion rate determination, an indirect in vitro cytotoxicity test, as well as for a direct contact test and were compared with the non-treated samples. The protective layer was characterized by SEM and its chemical composition was determined by EDS and XPS analysis. The corrosion rate was significantly decreased after the pre-incubation. The protective layer of corrosion products was rich in Ca and P. The pre-incubated samples exhibited increased cytocompatibility in the indirect test (metabolic activity of L929 cells was above 70%) and we also observed osteoblast-like cell growth directly on the samples during the contact tests. Thus, the pre-incubation in SBF leading to improved cytocompatibility could represent more appropriate model to in vivo testing.