Performance analysis of a stormwater green infrastructure model for flow and water quality predictions.

Nature-based solutions or Green infrastructure (GI) used for managing stormwater pollution are growing in popularity across the globe. Stormwater GI models are important tools to inform the planning of these systems (type, design, size), in the most efficient and cost-effective manner. MUSIC, an example of such a tool, uses regression and first order decay models. Studies validating MUSIC model performance are, however, scarce, hindering future model development and transferability of the model for systems operating under different design and climatic conditions. To close this gap, this paper evaluates MUSIC for a field scale bioretention system, stormwater wetland and vegetated swale operating under Singapore tropical climate. The treatment modules were able to simulate outflows and effluent pollutant concentrations reasonably well for cumulative event volumes (mostly within ±25%) and cumulative TP and TN loads (within ±30%). Outflow TSS loads were significantly under-estimated as a result of greater variability in measured TSS concentrations across events. The findings indicate that simple empirical models such as MUSIC can be transferred to different regions provided that management decisions are based on long-term modelling efforts. The modules generally simulated the outflow hydrographs and pollutographs of the different inflow and drying/wetting conditions relatively poorly.

Interactive effect of temperature and plant species on nitrogen cycling and treatment in stormwater biofiltration systems.

Stormwater biofiltration systems (also known as biofilters, bioretention, rain gardens) are engineered nature-based solutions, which help mitigate aquatic nitrogen pollution arising from storm runoff. These systems are being increasingly used in a range of climates across the world. A decline in treatment performance is frequently observed in cold weather conditions. While plant species comprise an important design factor influencing system performance, the effect of temperature on the fate of dissolved nitrogen forms, namely ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-), in the presence of different plant species in these systems remains unclear. A large scale laboratory experiment was undertaken that measured potential rates of nitrification, denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) as well as the microbial community structure to investigate nitrogen fate and hence removal under two different temperature conditions (2 °C and 15 °C) in the presence of four distinct plant species. The results indicate that lower nitrification rates (reduced by a factor of 4) coupled with potential media NH4+ desorption could be contributing to reduced NH4+ removal during cold conditions. Planting with species exhibiting good nutrient uptake capacity can reduce the extent of this performance decline. While NO3- reduction generally remains problematic during cold weather (<0 to 55% reduction), which may not be significantly different from warmer periods, the study demonstrated that the denitrification potential and gene abundance (nap, nar, NirS, norB, nosZ) to be higher than those of nitrification (amoA). Denitrification may not proceeding at optimal rates due to lack of conducive environmental conditions. Nitrogen transformation via DNRA was found to be relatively insignificant. Future studies should investigate the potential of employing cold-resilient plant species to maintain both NH4+ and NO3- removal in cold weather conditions.

Phosphorus Fate and Dynamics in Greywater Biofiltration Systems.

Phosphorus, a critical environmental pollutant, is effectively removed from stormwater by biofiltration systems, mainly via sedimentation and straining. However, the fate of dissolved inflow phosphorus concentrations in these systems is unknown. Given the growing interest in using biofiltration systems to treat other polluted waters, for example greywater, such an understanding is imperative to optimize designs for successful long-term performance. A mass balance method and a radiotracer, 32P (as H3PO4), were used to investigate the partitioning of phosphorus (concentrations of 2.5-3.5 mg/L, >80% was in dissolved inorganic form) between the various biofilter components at the laboratory scale. Planted columns maintained a phosphorus removal efficiency of >95% over the 15-week study period. Plant storage was found to be the dominant phosphorus sink (64% on average). Approximately 60% of the phosphorus retained in the filter media was recovered in the top 0-6 cm. The 32P tracer results indicate that adsorption is the immediate primary fate of dissolved phosphorus in the system (up to 57% of input P). Plant assimilation occurs at other times, potentially liberating sorption sites for processing of subsequent incoming phosphorus. Plants with high nutrient uptake capacities and the ability to efficiently extract soil phosphorus, for example Carex appressa, are, thus, recommended for use in greywater biofilters.

Designing living walls for greywater treatment.

Greywater is being increasingly used as an alternative water source to reduce potable water demand and to alleviate pressure on sewerage systems. This paper presents the development of a low energy and low maintenance greywater treatment technology: a living wall system, employing ornamental plants (including vines) grown in a sand filter on a side of a building to treat shower, bath, and washing basin wastewaters. The system can, at the same time, provide critical amenity and micro-climate benefits to our cities. A large scale column study was conducted in Melbourne, Australia, to investigate the following design and operational factors of the proposed system: plant species, saturated zone design, rest period, hydraulic loading rate and pollutant inflow concentration. The results indicate that the use of ornamental species (e.g. Canna lilies, Lonicera japonica, ornamental grape vine) can contribute to pollutant removal. Vegetation selection was found to be particularly important for nutrient removal. While a wider range of tested plant species was effective for nitrogen removal (>80%), phosphorus removal was more variable (-13% to 99%) over the study period, with only a few tested plants being effective - Carex appressa and Canna lilies were the best performers. It was also found that phosphorus removal can be compromised over the longer term as a result of leaching. Excellent suspended solids and organics removal efficiencies can be generally achieved in these systems (>80% for TSS and >90% for BOD) with plants having a relatively small impact. Columns had an acceptable infiltration capacity after one year of operation. When planted with effective species (e.g. Carex appressa and Canna lilies), it is expected that performance will not be significantly affected by longer rest periods and higher pollutant concentrations in the early years of system operation. The results of this study, thus, demonstrate that innovative and aesthetically pleasing living walls can be designed for treatment of greywater at the household scale.

Evaluation of sustainable electron donors for nitrate removal in different water media.

An external electron donor is usually included in wastewater and groundwater treatment systems to enhance nitrate removal through denitrification. The choice of electron donor is critical for both satisfactory denitrification rates and sustainable long-term performance. Electron donors that are waste products are preferred to pure organic chemicals. Different electron donors have been used to treat different water types and little is known as to whether there are any electron donors that are suitable for multiple applications. Seven different carbon rich waste products, including liquid and solid electron donors, were studied in comparison to pure acetate. Batch-scale tests were used to measure their ability to reduce nitrate concentrations in a pure nutrient solution, light greywater, secondary-treated wastewater and tertiary-treated wastewater. The tested electron donors removed oxidised nitrogen (NOx) at varying rates, ranging from 48 mg N/L/d (acetate) to 0.3 mg N/L/d (hardwood). The concentrations of transient nitrite accumulation also varied across the electron donors. The different water types had an influence on NOx removal rates, the extent of which was dependent on the type of electron donor. Overall, the highest rates were recorded in light greywater, followed by the pure nutrient solution and the two partially treated wastewaters. Cotton wool and rice hulls were found to be promising electron donors with good NOx removal rates, lower leachable nutrients and had the least variation in performance across water types.