The influence of early maternal care on perceptual attentional set shifting and stress reactivity in adult rats.

Stress influences a wide variety of outcomes including cognitive processing. In the rat, early life maternal care can influence developing offspring to affect both stress reactivity and cognitive processes in adulthood. The current study assessed if variations in early life maternal care can influence cognitive performance on a task, the ability to switch cognitive sets, dependent on the medial prefrontal cortex. Early in life, offspring was reared under High or Low maternal Licking conditions. As adults, they were trained daily and then tested on an attentional set-shifting task (ASST), which targets cognitive flexibility in rodents. Stress-sensitive behavioral and neural markers were assayed before and after the ASST. High and Low Licking offspring performed equally well on the ASST despite initial, but not later, differences in stress axis functioning. These results suggest that early life maternal care does not impact the accuracy of attentional set-shifting in rats. These findings may be of particular importance for those interested in the relationship between early life experience and adult cognitive function.

Natural variation in maternal care and cross-tissue patterns of oxytocin receptor gene methylation in rats.

This article is part of a Special Issue "Parental Care". Since the first report of maternal care effects on DNA methylation in rats, epigenetic modifications of the genome in response to life experience have become the subject of intense focus across many disciplines. Oxytocin receptor expression varies in response to early experience, and both oxytocin signaling and methylation status of the oxytocin receptor gene (Oxtr) in blood have been related to disordered social behavior. It is unknown whether Oxtr DNA methylation varies in response to early life experience, and whether currently employed peripheral measures of Oxtr methylation reflect variation in the brain. We examined the effects of early life rearing experience via natural variation in maternal licking and grooming during the first week of life on behavior, physiology, gene expression, and epigenetic regulation of Oxtr across blood and brain tissues (mononucleocytes, hippocampus, striatum, and hypothalamus). Rats reared by "high" licking-grooming (HL) and "low" licking-grooming (LL) rat dams exhibited differences across study outcomes: LL offspring were more active in behavioral arenas, exhibited lower body mass in adulthood, and showed reduced corticosterone responsivity to a stressor. Oxtr DNA methylation was significantly lower at multiple CpGs in the blood of LL versus HL males, but no differences were found in the brain. Across groups, Oxtr transcript levels in the hypothalamus were associated with reduced corticosterone secretion in response to stress, congruent with the role of oxytocin signaling in this region. Methylation of specific CpGs at a high or low level was consistent across tissues, especially within the brain. However, individual variation in DNA methylation relative to these global patterns was not consistent across tissues. These results suggest that blood Oxtr DNA methylation may reflect early experience of maternal care, and that Oxtr methylation across tissues is highly concordant for specific CpGs, but that inferences across tissues are not supported for individual variation in Oxtr methylation.

Socioeconomic Status and Social Support: Social Support Reduces Inflammatory Reactivity for Individuals Whose Early-Life Socioeconomic Status Was Low.

Low socioeconomic status (SES) during childhood confers risk for adverse health in adulthood. Accumulating evidence suggests that this may be due, in part, to the association between lower childhood SES and higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Drawing from literature showing that low childhood SES predicts exaggerated physiological reactivity to stressors and that lower SES is associated with a more communal, socially attuned orientation, we hypothesized that inflammatory reactivity would be more greatly affected by cues of social support among individuals whose childhood SES was low than among those whose childhood SES was high. In two studies, we found that individuals with lower subjective childhood SES exhibited greater reductions in pro-inflammatory cytokine reactivity to a stressor in the presence of a supportive figure (relative to conditions with an unsupportive or neutral figure). These effects were independent of current SES. This work helps illuminate SES-based differences in inflammatory reactivity to stressors, particularly among individuals whose childhood SES was low.

The role of interpersonal processes in shaping inflammatory responses to social-evaluative threat.

In response to social-evaluative threat induced in the laboratory, lower (compared to higher) subjective social class of a participant predicts greater increases in the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6). In spite of the interpersonal nature of social-evaluation, little work has explored whether characteristics of the evaluator shape physiological responses in this context. In the current study, in a sample of 190 college students (male=66), we explored whether one's subjective social class interacts with the perceived social class of an evaluator to predict changes in Oral Mucosal Transudate (OMT) IL-6 in response to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Participants were randomly assigned to be the speaker or the evaluator. Extending past work, we found that while speakers low in subjective social class consistently respond with strong increases in IL-6 regardless of their perception of their evaluator's social class, speakers high in subjective social class responded with greater increases in IL-6 when their evaluator was perceived as high social class compared to when they were perceived as low social class. This finding highlights the importance of perceptions of the evaluator in informing inflammatory responses to a social-evaluative task.

Stress and glucocorticoids promote oligodendrogenesis in the adult hippocampus.

Stress can exert long-lasting changes on the brain that contribute to vulnerability to mental illness, yet mechanisms underlying this long-term vulnerability are not well understood. We hypothesized that stress may alter the production of oligodendrocytes in the adult brain, providing a cellular and structural basis for stress-related disorders. We found that immobilization stress decreased neurogenesis and increased oligodendrogenesis in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the adult rat hippocampus and that injections of the rat glucocorticoid stress hormone corticosterone (cort) were sufficient to replicate this effect. The DG contains a unique population of multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) that give rise to adult newborn neurons, but oligodendrogenic potential has not been demonstrated in vivo. We used a nestin-CreER/YFP transgenic mouse line for lineage tracing and found that cort induces oligodendrogenesis from nestin-expressing NSCs in vivo. Using hippocampal NSCs cultured in vitro, we further showed that exposure to cort induced a pro-oligodendrogenic transcriptional program and resulted in an increase in oligodendrogenesis and decrease in neurogenesis, which was prevented by genetic blockade of glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Together, these results suggest a novel model in which stress may alter hippocampal function by promoting oligodendrogenesis, thereby altering the cellular composition and white matter structure.

Influence of housing variables on the development of stress-sensitive behaviors in the rat.

Diverse environments early in mammalian life can have profound influences on the physiology and behavior of developing offspring. Environmental factors can influence offspring development directly or through perturbations in parental care. In the current study, we wished to determine if the influence of a single environmental variable, type of bedding material used in laboratory cages, is capable of altering physiological and behavioral outcomes in offspring. Female rats were housed in cages containing wood pulp or corncob bedding and allowed to mature. These rats, while housed on assigned bedding material, were bred and allowed to give birth. At weaning, male offspring were housed on one of the two bedding conditions and tested later in adulthood on stress-sensitive behavioral measures. Postmortem analysis of glucocorticoid receptor expression and CRH mRNA levels were also measured. Maternal care directed at the pups reared in the two different bedding conditions was also recorded. Rats reared from birth on corncob bedding exhibited decreased anxiety-like behavior, as adults, in both open field and light-dark box tasks compared to wood pulp reared animals. Animals that received similar overall levels of maternal care, regardless of bedding condition, also differed in anxiety-like behaviors as adults, indicating that the bedding condition is capable of altering phenotype independent of maternal care. Despite observed behavioral differences in adult offspring reared in different bedding conditions, no changes in glucocorticoid receptor expression at the level of the hippocampus, frontal cortex, or corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA expression in the hypothalamus were observed between groups. These results highlight the importance of early life housing variables in programming stress-sensitive behaviors in adult offspring.

Wealth, health, and the moderating role of implicit social class bias.

BACKGROUND: Subjective social status (captured by the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status) is in many cases a stronger predictor of health outcomes than objective socioeconomic status (SES). PURPOSE: The study aims to test whether implicit beliefs about social class moderate the relationship between subjective social status and inflammation. METHODS: We measured implicit social class bias, subjective social status, SES, and baseline levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), a marker of inflammation, in 209 healthy adults. RESULTS: Implicit social class bias significantly moderated the relationship between subjective social status and levels of IL-6, with a stronger implicit association between the concepts "lower class" and "bad" predicting greater levels of IL-6. CONCLUSIONS: Implicit social class bias moderates the relationship between subjective social status and health outcomes via regulation of levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6. High implicit social class bias, particularly when one perceives oneself as having low social standing, may increase vulnerability to inflammatory processes.

Chronic stress elevates telomerase activity in rats.

The enzyme telomerase lengthens telomeres-protective structures containing repetitive DNA sequences at chromosome ends. Telomere shortening is associated with diseases of ageing in mammals. Chronic stress has been related to shorter immune-cell telomeres, but telomerase activity under stress may be low, permitting telomere loss, or high, partially attenuating it. We developed an experimental model to examine the impacts of extended unpredictable stress on telomerase activity in male rats. Telomerase activity was 54 per cent higher in stressed rats than in controls, and associated with stress-related physiological and behavioural outcomes. This significant increase suggests a potential mechanism for resilience to stress-related replicative senescence.

The social environment and IL-6 in rats and humans.

Inflammatory cytokine levels predict a wide range of human diseases including depression, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, autoimmune disease, general morbidity, and mortality. Stress and social experiences throughout the lifecourse have been associated with inflammatory processes. We conducted studies in humans and laboratory rats to examine the effect of early life experience and adult social position in predicting IL-6 levels. Human participants reported family homeownership during their childhood and current subjective social status. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) was measured from oral mucosal transudate. Rats were housed in groups of three, matched for quality of maternal care received. Social status was assessed via competition for resources, and plasma IL-6 was assessed in adulthood. In both humans and rats, we identified an interaction effect; early social experience moderated the effect of adult social status on IL-6 levels. Rats that experienced low levels of maternal care and people with low childhood socioeconomic status represented both the highest and lowest levels of IL-6 in adulthood, depending on their social status as young adults. The predicted interaction held for non-Hispanic people, but did not occur among Hispanic individuals. Adversity early in life may not have a monotonically negative effect on adult health, but may alter biological sensitivity to later social experiences.

Adaptive significance of natural variations in maternal care in rats: a translational perspective.

A wealth of data from the last fifty years documents the potency of early life experiences including maternal care on developing offspring. A majority of this research has focused on the developing stress axis and stress-sensitive behaviors in hopes of identifying factors impacting resilience and risk-sensitivity. The power of early life experience to shape later development is profound and has the potential to increase fitness of individuals for their environments. Current findings in a rat maternal care paradigm highlight the complex and dynamic relation between early experiences and a variety of outcomes. In this review we propose adaptive hypotheses for alternate maternal strategies and resulting offspring phenotypes, and suggest means of distinguishing between these hypotheses. We also provide evidence underscoring the critical role of context in interpreting the adaptive significance of early experiences. If our goal is to identify risk-factors relevant to humans, we must better explore the role of the social and physical environment in our basic animal models.

Maternal programming of sexual attractivity in female Long Evans rats.

In mammals, maternal care influences the developing offspring across multiple domains. In Long Evans rats, for example, the quality of maternal care received as a pup influences later cognitive function, neuroendocrine responses to stress and behavioral measures of emotionality. Data from humans, non-human primates, and rodents also suggest that early life events may similarly perturb measures of sexual reproduction, with possible consequences for reproductive fitness. The current study examined whether or not male conspecifics differentially prefer females, as adult mating partners, that were reared under varying maternal conditions (assessed via the quantity of licking and grooming received; LG). Additionally, the impact of maternal care on adult female sexual motivation and behavior were quantified to determine if these behavioral characteristics are associated with any preference observed. In a mate preference task, male rats chose, almost exclusively, to mount, copulate and ejaculate with female rats reared under Low LG conditions. Under non-paced mating conditions, female Low LG rats display significantly more paracopulatory and copulatory behaviors compared to High LG rats. Due to its critical role in female paracopulatory behavior, progesterone receptor immunoreactivity (PR-ir) in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) was also assessed in both groups of female rats. Estradiol induced PR-ir in the VMH was significantly higher in Low LG relative to High LG rats. Together, these data suggests that early life parental care may developmentally program aspects of behavior and physiology that subsequently influence sexual attractivity and behavior in adult females.

Vacuum-cleaner noise and acute stress responses in female C57BL/6 mice (Mus musculus).

Audiogenic stress is a well-documented phenomenon in laboratory rodents. Despite the recommendation in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals to consider noise a concern in the animal facility, only a small body of literature empirically addresses the effects of facility noise on laboratory rodents, particularly mice. The objective of this study was to determine whether facility noise generated by a vacuum cleaner induces an acute stress response in a commonly used strain of laboratory mouse under common housing conditions. In each of 2 experiments, 10 young adult, female C57BL/6Cr mice were exposed for 1 h to noise produced by a vacuum cleaner, and 10 control mice were not. In the first experiment, fecal samples were collected to measure concentrations of fecal corticosterone metabolites just before and 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 14, 24, and 32 h after noise exposure. In the second experiment, stress-sensitive behavioral tests were performed 2 d before, immediately after, and 24 h after noise exposure. Physiologic and behavioral measurements indicated that vacuum cleaner noise did not cause an acute stress response in the noise-exposed mice but may have affected the diurnal variation of their corticosterone levels. These findings could contribute to the development of best practices in noise-control protocols for animal facilities.

Conceptualizing child health disparities: a role for developmental neurogenomics.

Biological, psychological, and social processes interact over a lifetime to influence health and vulnerability to disease. Those interested in studying and understanding how and why racial/ethnic and social disparities emerge need to focus on the intersection of these processes. Recent work exploring molecular epigenetic mechanisms of gene expression (in humans as well and other mammalian systems) has provided evidence demonstrating that the genome is subject to regulation by surrounding contexts (eg, cytoplasmic, cellular, organismic, social). The developing stress axis is exquisitely sensitive to regulation by social forces represented at the level of the epigenome. Old assumptions about an inert genome are simply incorrect. Epigenetic processes may provide the missing link that will allow us to understand how social and political conditions, along with individual subjective experiences, can directly alter gene expression and thereby contribute to observed social inequalities in health. Developmental neurogenomics may provide the direct link between the biological and social/psychological worlds. These biological mechanisms of plasticity (at the level of gene expression and regulation) may play a profound role in how we conceptualize health inequalities by informing our concepts regarding the somatization or embodiment of social inequalities.

Oxytocin and vasopressin receptor distributions in a solitary and a social species of tuco-tuco (Ctenomys haigi and Ctenomys sociabilis).

The neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin and their receptors have been implicated in elements of mammalian social behavior such as attachment to mates and offspring, but their potential role in mediating other types of social relationships remains largely unknown. We performed receptor autoradiography to assess whether forebrain oxytocin receptor (OTR) or vasopressin V1a receptor (V1aR) distributions differed with social structure in two closely related and ecologically similar species of South American rodents, the colonial tuco-tuco (Ctenomys sociabilis) and the Patagonian tuco-tuco (Ctenomys haigi). Long-term field studies have revealed that C. haigi is solitary, whereas C. sociabilis is social and provides a model of female-based group living. Our analyses revealed marked differences in OTR and V1aR distributions between these species. For example, only C. sociabilis had OTR binding in the piriform cortex and thalamus and V1aR binding in the olfactory bulbs. In contrast, C. haigi exhibited dramatically higher levels of OTR binding throughout the lateral septum and hippocampus. More generally, the group-living C. sociabilis exhibited a pattern of nucleus accumbens OTR and ventral pallidum V1aR binding different from that associated with the formation of opposite-sex pair bonds in microtine rodents. Higher binding in the central nucleus of the amygdala of C. sociabilis was consistent with the hypothesis that formation of social groups in C. sociabilis may be facilitated by reduced social anxiety. Low OTR binding in the lateral septum might also be a permissive factor for group living in C. sociabilis. Future studies will expand on these analyses to explore interspecific differences in ctenomyid receptor binding patterns in a phylogenetic context.

Maternal separation and handling affects cocaine self-administration in both the treated pups as adults and the dams.

Repeated maternal separation of pups from dams is often used as an early life stressor that causes profound neurochemical and behavioral changes in the pups that persist into adulthood. The effects of maternal separation on both the dams and the treated pups as adults on cocaine self-administration were examined using four separation conditions: 15- or 180-min separation (MS15 and MS180), brief handling without separation (MS0), and a nonhandled group (NH). The separations and handling occurred daily on postnatal days 2 to 15. The acquisition of cocaine self-administration (0.0625-1.0 mg/kg/infusion) was evaluated in the treated pups as adults. The MS180 group acquired cocaine self-administration at the lowest dose tested (0.0625 mg/kg/infusion), whereas the MS15s did not respond for cocaine at rates greater than that seen with saline administration. The NH group received the greatest number of infusions and intake at the highest doses. After self-administration, no differences were observed between groups in activity of two liver carboxylesterases involved in the inactivation of cocaine, ES10 and ES4. Maternal separation affected cocaine self-administration in the dams as well. Although there was an overall significant affect of treatment on cocaine self-administration, the length of separation (15 or 180 min) did not affect cocaine self-administration on the dams. The MS0 dams averaged a greater number of infusions per session than NH group during the 1st week of acquisition. These data suggest that in addition to the profound changes that occur in pups as result of maternal separation, the dams are also susceptible to alterations in behaviors.

Maternal influences on adult stress and anxiety-like behavior in C57BL/6J and BALB/cJ mice: a cross-fostering study.

The quality of maternal care during early life has a dramatic impact on later stress reactivity and anxiety. Two inbred mouse strains, C57BL/6J and BALB/cJ, differ in levels of maternal care, stress reactivity, and anxiety-like behavior in adulthood. However, the relative contribution of early environmental factors and genetic predisposition to differences in these strains is not known. Maternal care, plasma corticosterone levels, emotionality, and hippocampal and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) glucocorticoid receptor mRNA levels were measured in adult C57BL/6J and BALB/cJ mice. Litters were then cross-fostered and anxiety-like behavior and stress reactivity was assessed in adulthood. Significantly less maternal care and elevated stress-induced corticosterone and emotionality was observed in BALB/cJ compared to C57BL/6J mice. Yet, no strain differences were found in hippocampal or paraventricular nucleus glucocorticoid receptor mRNA levels. Cross-fostering did alter anxiety-like behavior and basal corticosterone levels, which suggests that while genetic differences account for some of the variations between these two strains early rearing conditions also contribute.

Variations in maternal care in the rat as a mediating influence for the effects of environment on development.

Variations in maternal care have been widely considered as a critical influence in development. In the rat, variations in maternal behavior, particularly in licking/grooming, regulate the development of endocrine, emotional and cognitive responses to stress. These studies form the basis of a potentially useful model for the study of maternal effects in mammals. In this paper we provide a detailed methodological investigation into this model of maternal behavior, providing an analysis of the frequency, temporal dynamics, and transmission of maternal licking/grooming in several large cohorts. Frequency data indicate that licking/grooming is normally distributed across dams. The peak in licking/grooming occurs in the first few days postpartum and gradually declines. Dams designated as High or Low LG mothers differ in this behavior only during the first week postpartum. Observations over Days 2 to 5 postpartum are essential for the reliable assessments of individual differences in maternal behavior. Individual differences in licking/grooming behavior are stable across multiple litters, and are not associated with differences in litter size, weaning weight of pups, or gender ratio of the litter. We also observed no significant differences in the amount of licking/grooming received by individual pups within a litter, though variation does exist. Finally, maternal licking/grooming is transmitted to female offspring, though there is considerable within-litter variation in the expression of this behavior. Overall, these findings indicate considerable, normal variations in licking/grooming in the rat that are a stable, individual characteristic of rat dams.

Environmental enrichment reverses the effects of maternal separation on stress reactivity.

Postnatal maternal separation increases hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) gene expression and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and behavioral responses to stress. We report here that environmental enrichment during the peripubertal period completely reverses the effects of maternal separation on both HPA and behavioral responses to stress, with no effect on CRF mRNA expression. We conclude that environmental enrichment leads to a functional reversal of the effects of maternal separation through compensation for, rather than reversal of, the neural effects of early life adversity.