FATAL SYSTEMIC FUNGAL INFECTION IN EASTERN BONGO ANTELOPE (TRAGELAPHUS EURYCERUS ISAACI): SIX CASES.

Over a span of 6 yr, six adult eastern bongo antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci) from a single institution died due to systemic mycotic infections. All animals were of the same genetic lineage and in good body condition at the time of death. Gross findings in all cases included multifocal white-to-tan nodules up to 10 cm in diameter that were most numerous in the heart, lung, and kidney. Histologic examination identified these nodules as foci of granulomatous inflammation containing branching, septate, broad, undulating fungal elements. Identification of the fungal species was pursued using PCR with sequencing, immunohistochemistry, and culture. Multiple fungal species were identified using the various modalities, and commonality of species identification was limited to Cladosporium sp. in four of the cases. The clinical and postmortem findings in these cases were identical and were considered to be the same infectious disease. The Cladosporium sp. was considered a candidate as an emerging fatal infectious agent in this population of bongo antelopes. In all of these cases, death was attributed to conduction abnormalities associated with the cardiac lesions or euthanasia.

Outcomes from an anti-gonadotropin-releasing hormone immunotherapeutic trial in large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus).

OBJECTIVE: The anti-GnRH immunotherapeutic product Improvest was administered to intact male large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) under managed care for androgen mitigation, leading to a decrease in agonistic behaviors, falls, and injuries from conspecific attention. ANIMALS: 12 males were included in this study. PROCEDURES: Eleven bats received subcutaneous (SC) Improvest interscapular, and 1 animal received Improvest SC in its leg. Assessments included clinical presentation, treatment, behavior, and urine and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and testosterone (T5) concentrations. RESULTS: Eleven of the 12 bats developed reactions, which included facial edema, localized irritation, swelling of the head and neck, and pruritus with varying degrees of skin ulceration and subsequent necrosis. Three of the animals required extensive treatments, and the 1 animal who received the injection in its leg was unaffected. Posttreatment, fecal glucocorticoid metabolite and/or T5 values were at or below the nonbreeding season baseline for 3 successive breeding seasons, and there was a reduction in agonistic interactions, falls, and injuries. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A behavioral characteristic of this species is to focus on areas of irritation that exacerbated the extent of the skin wounds. Some cases required medical, surgical, and behavioral intervention. Large flying foxes may be particularly sensitive to this immunotherapeutic when given subcutaneously in the interscapular region. Despite this reaction, the positive long-term effects on behavior and multiyear reduction of hormones suggest that the use of this immunotherapeutic warrants further investigation, although the results should be taken into consideration with other factors such as handling, treatments, chronicity of lesions.

Identification of a novel mortality-associated Helicobacter species in gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), qPCR test development and validation, and correlation with mortality in a wildlife rehabilitation population.

The genus Helicobacter includes spiral-shaped bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria, class Epsilonproteobacteria, order Campylobacteriales, that have been associated with disease in animals, including reptiles. Three wild gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) index cases presented between 2012 and 2019 with nasal discharge, lethargy, and weight loss. Cytological examination of nasal discharge from all 3 tortoises identified marked heterophilic and mild histiocytic rhinitis with abundant extracellular and phagocytized spiral shaped bacteria that stained positive with Warthin-Starry stain. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene revealed this to be a novel Helicobacter species. Two tortoises died despite treatment attempts, and the third was moribund and was euthanized. Histological examination of the nasal mucosa (n = 3) showed granulocytic to lymphocytic rhinitis with variable mucosal hyperplasia, erosion, and ulceration; Warthin-Starry staining highlighted the presence of spiral bacteria in the untreated tortoise. Genus-specific primers were designed, and the gyrA and groEL genes were amplified by PCR and sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis shows that this organism and other previously characterized Helicobacter from tortoises form a clade. Development and cross-validation of two qPCR diagnostic assays for the gyrA and groEL genes showed significant correlation of the results of two assays (P < 0.0001). These assays were used to survey nasal wash samples from 31 rehabilitating gopher tortoises. Mortality of tortoises significantly correlated with higher Helicobacter loads detected by qPCR (P = 0.028). Appropriate quarantine protocols for tortoises during rehabilitation should consider this organism. Upper respiratory disease in tortoises may involve complex microbial ecology; factors beyond Mycoplasmopsis (Mycoplasma) agassizii should be taken into account.

PHARMACOKINETICS OF A SINGLE ORAL DOSE OF FLUNIXIN MEGLUMINE IN THE WHITE RHINOCEROS (CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM).

Flunixin meglumine, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication, has been used in rhinoceros species at doses extrapolated from domestic animals. There is increasing evidence to suggest significant variations exist in metabolism of drugs in exotic species. Due to the differences in drug metabolism, dose extrapolation from domestic animals may not be appropriate for exotic species. The objective of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of flunixin meglumine in five white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) administered a single (1 mg/kg) oral dose of a commercial equine flunixin meglumine paste. Concentrations of flunixin and its metabolite 5-OH flunixin were analyzed, and pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated for each animal. Mean observed plasma concentrations peaked at 1,207 ± 601 ng/ml and occurred at 3 ± 1 hr. The geometric mean of the apparent elimination half-life after oral administration was 8.3 ± 1.2 hr. This data suggests that flunixin meglumine appears to be slowly metabolized or slowly absorbed in this species. No adverse clinical effects were observed during the study period. A single dose of 1 mg/kg appears safe for use in the white rhinoceros. Multidose studies are needed to determine if plasma accumulation of flunixin meglumine occurs and to evaluate safety.

PHARMACOKINETIC EVALUATION OF MELOXICAM AFTER INTRAVENOUS AND INTRAMUSCULAR ADMINISTRATION IN NILE TILAPIA (OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS).

Critically evaluating the pharmacokinetic behavior of a drug in the body provides crucial information about how to effectively treat a patient. Pharmacokinetic studies that exist in fish have primarily focused on drugs used to treat infectious disease, with minimal attention given to analgesic drugs. The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of meloxicam (1 mg/kg) in Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ) (n = 12). A single dose of meloxicam was administered either i.v. or i.m. Blood samples were obtained at predetermined times after drug injection. Plasma meloxicam concentrations were determined by a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry method, and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was performed. The mean peak plasma concentration after i.m. injection was 1.95 µg/ml. The mean terminal half-life of meloxicam after i.v. and i.m. administration was 1.36 and 1.8 hr, respectively. The area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve extrapolated to infinity was 11.26 hr·µg/ml after i.v. administration and 5.72 hr·µg/ml after i.m. administration. Bioavailability of meloxicam after i.m. administration was approximately half that of i.v. administration. Elimination was rapid in both the i.m. and i.v. routes of administration, suggesting that maintaining clinically relevant plasma concentrations may be difficult using this dose. This study represents the first pharmacokinetic evaluation of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in a fish species, and further studies evaluating efficacy are needed.

MANAGEMENT OF A PATENT URACHUS AND YOLK COELOMITIS IN A PREHENSILE-TAILED SKINK (CORUCIA ZEBRATA).

An 11-day-old, captive-born, male prehensile-tailed skink (Corucia zebrata) was evaluated for a chronically swollen umbilicus. On presentation, the skink appeared dehydrated and weak. The umbilical stump was sensitive, edematous, and erythematous. Yellow fluid was readily expressed during palpation of the surrounding area, suggestive of urine. Following several days of supportive care, a positive contrast cloacagram supported the diagnosis of a patent urachus. An exploratory celiotomy was performed, confirming yolk coelomitis and a patent urachus. Both were corrected surgically, and the skink improved steadily thereafter. This report confirms the presence of a urinary bladder in C. zebrata and is the first report of a patent urachus in a reptile. Surgical intervention and medical management of concurrent infectious coelomitis were curative in this case.

Successful management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei).

A 3-yr-old, intact male Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) was examined for a 1-wk history of intermittent lethargy and tachypnea. An echocardiogram revealed concentric hypertrophy of the left ventricular free wall and interventricular septum. These findings were compared to measurements from healthy Matschie's tree kangaroos, supporting a diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. At the time of publication, the patient has been managed for over 11.5 yr, using a combination of enalapril, furosemide, diltiazem, and diet modifications. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy should be considered as a differential diagnosis in tree kangaroos exhibiting signs of cardiovascular or respiratory distress. This case represents the first report of antemortem diagnosis and successful management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a Matschie's tree kangaroo.

Development and validation of a novel hydrolysis probe real-time polymerase chain reaction for agamid adenovirus 1 in the central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps).

Agamid adenovirus 1 (AgAdv-1) is a significant cause of disease in bearded dragons (Pogona sp.). Clinical manifestations of AgAdv-1 infection are variable and often nonspecific; the manifestations range from lethargy, weight loss, and inappetence, to severe enteritis, hepatitis, and sudden death. Currently, diagnosis of AgAdv-1 infection is achieved through a single published method: standard nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) and sequencing. Standard nPCR with sequencing provides reliable sensitivity, specificity, and validation of PCR products. However, this process is comparatively expensive, laborious, and slow. Probe hybridization, as used in a TaqMan assay, represents the best option for validating PCR products aside from the time-consuming process of sequencing. This study developed a real-time PCR (qPCR) assay using a TaqMan probe-based assay, targeting a highly conserved region of the AgAdv-1 genome. Standard curves were generated, detection results were compared with the gold standard conventional PCR and sequencing assay, and limits of detection were determined. Additionally, the qPCR assay was run on samples known to be positive for AgAdv-1 and samples known to be positive for other adenoviruses. Based on the results of these evaluations, this assay allows for a less expensive, rapid, quantitative detection of AgAdv-1 in bearded dragons.

Pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in rabbits after oral administration of single and multiple doses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of meloxicam (1 mg/kg) in rabbits after oral administration of single and multiple doses. ANIMALS: 6 healthy rabbits. PROCEDURES: A single dose of meloxicam (1 mg/kg, PO) was administered to the rabbits. After a 10-day washout period, meloxicam (1 mg/kg, PO) was administered to rabbits every 24 hours for 5 days. Blood samples were obtained from rabbits at predetermined intervals during both treatment periods. Plasma meloxicam concentrations were determined, and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was performed. RESULTS: The mean peak plasma concentration and area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve extrapolated to infinity after administration of a single dose of meloxicam were 0.83 µg/mL and 10.37 h•µg/mL, respectively. After administration of meloxicam for 5 days, the mean peak plasma concentration was 1.33 µg/mL, and the area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve from the time of administration of the last dose to 24 hours after that time was 18.79 h•µg/mL. For single- and multiple-dose meloxicam experiments, the mean time to maximum plasma concentration was 6.5 and 5.8 hours and the mean terminal half-life was 6.1 and 6.7 hours, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Plasma concentrations of meloxicam for rabbits in the present study were proportionally higher than those previously reported for rabbits receiving 0.2 mg of meloxicam/kg and were similar to those determined for animals of other species that received clinically effective doses. A dose of 1 mg/kg may be necessary to achieve clinically effective circulating concentrations of meloxicam in rabbits, although further studies are needed.

Pulmonary adenocarcinoma with osseous metastasis and secondary paresis in a blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna).

A 16-yr-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was presented with an acute history of lethargy, inappetance, ataxia, and paralysis. The bird had rapidly progressed from a normal state to complete inability to perch or ambulate within a 48-hr period. Neurologic examination revealed bilateral hind limb paresis with upper motor neuron signs present in both legs and the vent. Radiographs identified multiple nodular soft-tissue opacities within the cranial coelomic cavity and a single nodule superimposed with the thoracic spine. The bird was euthanized and submitted for necropsy, which revealed a primary pulmonary adenocarcinoma with multiple sites of osseous metastasis, including the vertebrae, and subsequent spinal cord compression. This is the first report of pulmonary adenocarcinoma in this species, although reports of similar tumors in other psittacines have been published. This report, along with others previously published, suggests that vertebral metastasis of primary pulmonary tumors may be more common in psittacine species than previously recognized and, as such, should be considered as a differential diagnosis in psittacine birds exhibiting signs of neurologic dysfunction attributed to a spinal cord lesion.