ABSTRACT
Female athletes display a high prevalence of hypothalamic amenorrhea as a result of energy imbalance. In these athletes with amenorrhea, decreased luteinizing hormone/follicule-stimulating hormone secretion leads to deficiency in endogenous estrogen. The severe estrogen deficiency in these athletes may increase cardiovascular risk similar to that in postmenopausal women. This review discusses the potential cardiovascular risk factors in athletes with amenorrhea as a result of hypoestrogenism, which include endothelial dysfunction and unfavorable lipid profiles. We also consider the potential to reverse the cardiovascular risk by restoring energy or hormonal imbalance along the reproductive axis in athletes with amenorrhea.
Subject(s)
Amenorrhea/therapy , Athletes , Cardiovascular Diseases/prevention & control , Energy Metabolism/drug effects , Estrogen Replacement Therapy , Estrogens/deficiency , Amenorrhea/epidemiology , Amenorrhea/metabolism , Amenorrhea/physiopathology , Cardiovascular Diseases/epidemiology , Cardiovascular Diseases/metabolism , Cardiovascular Diseases/physiopathology , Female , Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Human/metabolism , Humans , Inflammation Mediators/metabolism , Luteinizing Hormone/metabolism , Risk Assessment , Risk FactorsABSTRACT
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Renal dysfunction or renal failure is a common complication in left ventricular assist device (LVAD) recipients and is associated with reduced survival. To date, serum creatinine and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) are used for the evaluation of kidney function. However, serum creatinine and GFR have limitations. The objective of our study is to assess the levels of kidney biomarkers in LVAD recipients compared to heart failure patients and healthy controls and to examine their association with conventional clinical biomarkers. METHODS: The biomarkers neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and adiponectin were assessed in 51 participants: 19 heart failure patients, 16 LVAD recipients, and 16 healthy controls. Linear regressions were performed to assess whether demographic and clinical variables predict the levels of biomarkers that are associated with acute kidney injury and the risk of chronic kidney disease. RESULTS: The levels of NGAL and adiponectin were higher in LVAD recipients and patients with heart failure as compared with healthy controls. The levels of PAI-1 and KIM-1 were not elevated in LVAD recipients. The results of linear regression analysis indicated that when controlling for the effect of CRP and BNP, 40.1% of the variance in NGAL levels can be explained by GFR (R2 = 0.401, F = 5.56, p = 0.005), while CRP can explain 35.3% of the variance in adiponectin levels (R2 = 0.353, F = 4.55, p = 0.01), when controlling for the effect of BNP and GFR. CONCLUSIONS: The levels of NGAL and adiponectin were augmented in LVAD recipients, suggesting that renal functions were not restored with circulatory support. Larger studies should assess the predictability of these biomarkers of renal dysfunction in LVAD recipients.
Subject(s)
Acute Kidney Injury/etiology , Creatinine/blood , Glomerular Filtration Rate/physiology , Heart Failure/therapy , Heart-Assist Devices , Inflammation/blood , Kidney/pathology , Acute Kidney Injury/metabolism , Adiponectin/blood , Adult , Aged , Biomarkers/blood , Disease Progression , Female , Fibrosis/blood , Fibrosis/etiology , Heart Failure/complications , Heart Failure/metabolism , Hepatitis A Virus Cellular Receptor 1/blood , Humans , Inflammation/diagnosis , Inflammation/etiology , Kidney/physiopathology , Lipocalin-2/blood , Male , Middle Aged , Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 1/bloodABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: The levels of neurohormones were assessed in continuous-flow left ventricular assist device (CF-LVAD) recipients and compared to patients with heart failure (HF) and to healthy controls (HCs), and CF-LVAD recipients with closed or open aortic valves (AVs). METHODS: Aldosterone, norepinephrine, and renin levels were assessed in a total of 46 participants, including CF-LVAD recipients (n = 18), HF patients (n = 14), and HC individuals (n = 14). Echocardiographic assessments were performed to evaluate cardiac functions and aortic valve status and neurohormone levels were compared between CF-LVAD recipients with closed or open AVs. RESULTS: Aldosterone, norepinephrine, and renin levels were elevated to a similar extent in CF-LVAD recipients and HF patients, compared to HC individuals. In the CF-LVAD group, no differences were found between the levels of norepinephrine and aldosterone between recipients with AV opened or closed. With an open AVs, CF-LVAD recipients had higher levels of renin compared to recipients with closed AVs. However, an open AV was only a weak predictor of higher levels of renin. CONCLUSION: The findings that aldosterone, norepinephrine, and renin were elevated after restoration of hemodynamic functions during LVAD support suggest that the levels of neurohormones did not normalize. Future studies should investigate whether AV status in CF-LVAD recipients affects the levels of RAAS neurohormones and the mechanisms and clinical implications of elevated levels of neurohormones in CF-LVAD patients.
