Cellular mechanisms controlling caspase activation and function.

Caspases are the primary drivers of apoptotic cell death, cleaving cellular proteins that are critical for dismantling the dying cell. Initially translated as inactive zymogenic precursors, caspases are activated in response to a variety of cell death stimuli. In addition to factors required for their direct activation (e.g., dimerizing adaptor proteins in the case of initiator caspases that lie at the apex of apoptotic signaling cascades), caspases are regulated by a variety of cellular factors in a myriad of physiological and pathological settings. For example, caspases may be modified posttranslationally (e.g., by phosphorylation or ubiquitylation) or through interaction of modulatory factors with either the zymogenic or active form of a caspase, altering its activation and/or activity. These regulatory events may inhibit or enhance enzymatic activity or may affect activity toward particular cellular substrates. Finally, there is emerging literature to suggest that caspases can participate in a variety of cellular processes unrelated to apoptotic cell death. In these settings, it is particularly important that caspases are maintained under stringent control to avoid inadvertent cell death. It is likely that continued examination of these processes will reveal new mechanisms of caspase regulation with implications well beyond control of apoptotic cell death.

Rsk-mediated phosphorylation and 14-3-3ɛ binding of Apaf-1 suppresses cytochrome c-induced apoptosis.

Many pro-apoptotic signals trigger mitochondrial cytochrome c release, leading to caspase activation and ultimate cellular breakdown. Cell survival pathways, including the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, promote cell viability by impeding mitochondrial cytochrome c release and by inhibiting subsequent caspase activation. Here, we describe a mechanism for the inhibition of cytochrome c-induced caspase activation by MAPK signalling, identifying a novel mode of apoptotic regulation exerted through Apaf-1 phosphorylation by the 90-kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (Rsk). Recruitment of 14-3-3ɛ to phosphorylated Ser268 impedes the ability of cytochrome c to nucleate apoptosome formation and activate downstream caspases. High endogenous levels of Rsk in PC3 prostate cancer cells or Rsk activation in other cell types promoted 14-3-3ɛ binding to Apaf-1 and rendered the cells insensitive to cytochrome c, suggesting a potential role for Rsk signalling in apoptotic resistance of prostate cancers and other cancers with elevated Rsk activity. Collectively, these results identify a novel locus of apoptosomal regulation wherein MAPK signalling promotes Rsk-catalysed Apaf-1 phosphorylation and consequent binding of 14-3-3ɛ, resulting in decreased cellular responsiveness to cytochrome c.

A biotin switch-based proteomics approach identifies 14-3-3ζ as a target of Sirt1 in the metabolic regulation of caspase-2.

While lysine acetylation in the nucleus is well characterized, comparatively little is known about its significance in cytoplasmic signaling. Here we show that inhibition of the Sirt1 deacetylase, which is primarily cytoplasmic in cancer cell lines, sensitizes these cells to caspase-2-dependent death. To identify relevant Sirt1 substrates, we developed a proteomics strategy, enabling the identification of a range of putative substrates, including 14-3-3ζ, a known direct regulator of caspase-2. We show here that inhibition of Sirtuin activity accelerates caspase activation and overrides caspase-2 suppression by nutrient abundance. Furthermore, 14-3-3ζ is acetylated prior to caspase activation, and supplementation of Xenopus egg extract with glucose-6-phosphate, which promotes caspase-2/14-3-3ζ binding, enhances 14-3-3ζ-directed Sirtuin activity. Conversely, inhibiting Sirtuin activity promotes14-3-3ζ dissociation from caspase-2 in both egg extract and human cultured cells. These data reveal a role for Sirt1 in modulating apoptotic sensitivity, in response to metabolic changes, by antagonizing 14-3-3ζ acetylation.

Regulation of mitochondrial morphology by APC/CCdh1-mediated control of Drp1 stability.

Homeostatic maintenance of cellular mitochondria requires a dynamic balance between fission and fusion, and controlled changes in morphology are important for processes such as apoptosis and cellular division. Interphase mitochondria have been described as an interconnected network that fragments as cells enter mitosis, and this mitotic mitochondrial fragmentation is known to be regulated by the dynamin-related GTPase Drp1 (dynamin-related protein 1), a key component of the mitochondrial division machinery. Loss of Drp1 function and the subsequent failure of mitochondrial division during mitosis lead to incomplete cytokinesis and the unequal distribution of mitochondria into daughter cells. During mitotic exit and interphase, the mitochondrial network reforms. Here we demonstrate that changes in mitochondrial dynamics as cells exit mitosis are driven in part through ubiquitylation of Drp1, catalyzed by the APC/C(Cdh1) (anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome and its coactivator Cdh1) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. Importantly, inhibition of Cdh1-mediated Drp1 ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation during interphase prevents the normal G1 phase regrowth of mitochondrial networks following cell division.

Metabolic regulation of Drosophila apoptosis through inhibitory phosphorylation of Dronc.

Apoptosis ensures tissue homeostasis in response to developmental cues or cellular damage. Recently reported genome-wide RNAi screens have suggested that several metabolic regulators can modulate caspase activation in Drosophila. Here, we establish a previously unrecognized link between metabolism and Drosophila apoptosis by showing that cellular NADPH levels modulate the initiator caspase Dronc through its phosphorylation at S130. Depletion of NADPH removed this inhibitory phosphorylation, resulting in the activation of Dronc and subsequent cell death. Conversely, upregulation of NADPH prevented Dronc-mediated apoptosis upon DIAP1 RNAi or cycloheximide treatment. Furthermore, this CaMKII-mediated phosphorylation of Dronc hindered Dronc activation, but not its catalytic activity. Blockade of NADPH production aggravated the death-inducing activity of Dronc in specific neurons, but not in the photoreceptor cells of the eyes of transgenic flies; similarly, non-phosphorylatable Dronc was more potent than wild type in triggering specific neuronal apoptosis. Our observations reveal a novel regulatory circuitry in Drosophila apoptosis, and, as NADPH levels are elevated in cancer cells, also provide a genetic model to understand aberrations in cancer cell apoptosis resulting from metabolic alterations.

Emi2-mediated inhibition of E2-substrate ubiquitin transfer by the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome through a D-box-independent mechanism.

Vertebrate eggs are arrested at Metaphase II by Emi2, the meiotic anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) inhibitor. Although the importance of Emi2 during oocyte maturation has been widely recognized and its regulation extensively studied, its mechanism of action remained elusive. Many APC/C inhibitors have been reported to act as pseudosubstrates, inhibiting the APC/C by preventing substrate binding. Here we show that a previously identified zinc-binding region is critical for the function of Emi2, whereas the D-box is largely dispensable. We further demonstrate that instead of acting through a "pseudosubstrate" mechanism as previously hypothesized, Emi2 can inhibit Cdc20-dependent activation of the APC/C substoichiometrically, blocking ubiquitin transfer from the ubiquitin-charged E2 to the substrate. These findings provide a novel mechanism of APC/C inhibition wherein the final step of ubiquitin transfer is targeted and raise the interesting possibility that APC/C is inhibited by Emi2 in a catalytic manner.

Restraint of apoptosis during mitosis through interdomain phosphorylation of caspase-2.

The apoptotic initiator caspase-2 has been implicated in oocyte death, in DNA damage- and heat shock-induced death, and in mitotic catastrophe. We show here that the mitosis-promoting kinase, cdk1-cyclin B1, suppresses apoptosis upstream of mitochondrial cytochrome c release by phosphorylating caspase-2 within an evolutionarily conserved sequence at Ser 340. Phosphorylation of this residue, situated in the caspase-2 interdomain, prevents caspase-2 activation. S340 was susceptible to phosphatase 1 dephosphorylation, and an interaction between phosphatase 1 and caspase-2 detected during interphase was lost in mitosis. Expression of S340A non-phosphorylatable caspase-2 abrogated mitotic suppression of caspase-2 and apoptosis in various settings, including oocytes induced to undergo cdk1-dependent maturation. Moreover, U2OS cells treated with nocodazole were found to undergo mitotic catastrophe more readily when endogenous caspase-2 was replaced with the S340A mutant to lift mitotic inhibition. These data demonstrate that for apoptotic stimuli transduced by caspase-2, cell death is prevented during mitosis through the inhibitory phosphorylation of caspase-2 and suggest that under conditions of mitotic arrest, cdk1-cyclin B1 activity must be overcome for apoptosis to occur.

Metabolic control of oocyte apoptosis mediated by 14-3-3zeta-regulated dephosphorylation of caspase-2.

Xenopus oocyte death is partly controlled by the apoptotic initiator caspase-2 (C2). We reported previously that oocyte nutrient depletion activates C2 upstream of mitochondrial cytochrome c release. Conversely, nutrient-replete oocytes inhibit C2 via S135 phosphorylation catalyzed by calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. We now show that C2 phosphorylated at S135 binds 14-3-3zeta, thus preventing C2 dephosphorylation. Moreover, we determined that S135 dephosphorylation is catalyzed by protein phosphatase-1 (PP1), which directly binds C2. Although C2 dephosphorylation is responsive to metabolism, neither PP1 activity nor binding is metabolically regulated. Rather, release of 14-3-3zeta from C2 is controlled by metabolism and allows for C2 dephosphorylation. Accordingly, a C2 mutant unable to bind 14-3-3zeta is highly susceptible to dephosphorylation. Although this mechanism was initially established in Xenopus, we now demonstrate similar control of murine C2 by phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding in mouse eggs. These findings provide an unexpected evolutionary link between 14-3-3 and metabolism in oocyte death.

PP1-mediated dephosphorylation of phosphoproteins at mitotic exit is controlled by inhibitor-1 and PP1 phosphorylation.

Loss of cell division cycle 2 (Cdc2, also known as Cdk1) activity after cyclin B degradation is necessary, but not sufficient, for mitotic exit. Proteins phosphorylated by Cdc2 and downstream mitotic kinases must be dephosphorylated. We report here that protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) is the main catalyst of mitotic phosphoprotein dephosphorylation. Suppression of PP1 during early mitosis is maintained through dual inhibition by Cdc2 phosphorylation and the binding of inhibitor-1. Protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylates inhibitor-1, mediating binding to PP1. As Cdc2 levels drop after cyclin B degradation, auto-dephosphorylation of PP1 at its Cdc2 phosphorylation site (Thr 320) allows partial PP1 activation. This promotes PP1-regulated dephosphorylation at the activating site of inhibitor-1 (Thr 35) followed by dissociation of the inhibitor-1-PP1 complex and then full PP1 activation to promote mitotic exit. Thus, Cdc2 both phosphorylates multiple mitotic substrates and inhibits their PP1-mediated dephosphorylation.

Aven-dependent activation of ATM following DNA damage.

BACKGROUND: In response to DNA damage, cells undergo either cell-cycle arrest or apoptosis, depending on the extent of damage and the cell's capacity for DNA repair. Cell-cycle arrest induced by double-stranded DNA breaks depends on activation of the ataxia-telangiectasia (ATM) protein kinase, which phosphorylates cell-cycle effectors such as Chk2 and p53 to inhibit cell-cycle progression. ATM is recruited to double-stranded DNA breaks by a complex of sensor proteins, including Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1, resulting in autophosphorylation, monomerization, and activation of ATM kinase. RESULTS: In characterizing Aven protein, a previously reported apoptotic inhibitor, we have found that Aven can function as an ATM activator to inhibit G2/M progression. Aven bound to ATM and Aven overexpressed in cycling Xenopus egg extracts prevented mitotic entry and induced phosphorylation of ATM and its substrates. Immunodepletion of endogenous Aven allowed mitotic entry even in the presence of damaged DNA, and RNAi-mediated knockdown of Aven in human cells prevented autophosphorylation of ATM at an activating site (S1981) in response to DNA damage. Interestingly, Aven is also a substrate of the ATM kinase. Mutation of ATM-mediated phosphorylation sites on Aven reduced its ability to activate ATM, suggesting that Aven activation of ATM after DNA damage is enhanced by ATM-mediated Aven phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: These results identify Aven as a new ATM activator and describe a positive feedback loop operating between Aven and ATM. In aggregate, these findings place Aven, a known apoptotic inhibitor, as a critical transducer of the DNA-damage signal.

Cdc2 and Mos regulate Emi2 stability to promote the meiosis I-meiosis II transition.

The transition of oocytes from meiosis I (MI) to meiosis II (MII) requires partial cyclin B degradation to allow MI exit without S phase entry. Rapid reaccumulation of cyclin B allows direct progression into MII, producing a cytostatic factor (CSF)-arrested egg. It has been reported that dampened translation of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC) inhibitor Emi2 at MI allows partial APC activation and MI exit. We have detected active Emi2 translation at MI and show that Emi2 levels in MI are mainly controlled by regulated degradation. Emi2 degradation in MI depends not on Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), but on Cdc2-mediated phosphorylation of multiple sites within Emi2. As in MII, this phosphorylation is antagonized by Mos-mediated recruitment of PP2A to Emi2. Higher Cdc2 kinase activity in MI than MII allows sufficient Emi2 phosphorylation to destabilize Emi2 in MI. At MI anaphase, APC-mediated degradation of cyclin B decreases Cdc2 activity, enabling Cdc2-mediated Emi2 phosphorylation to be successfully antagonized by Mos-mediated PP2A recruitment. These data suggest a model of APC autoinhibition mediated by stabilization of Emi2; Emi2 proteins accumulate at MI exit and inhibit APC activity sufficiently to prevent complete degradation of cyclin B, allowing MI exit while preventing interphase before MII entry.

Mitochondrial localization of Reaper to promote inhibitors of apoptosis protein degradation conferred by GH3 domain-lipid interactions.

Morphological hallmarks of apoptosis result from activation of the caspase family of cysteine proteases, which are opposed by a pro-survival family of inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs). In Drosophila, disruption of IAP function by Reaper, HID, and Grim (RHG) proteins is sufficient to induce cell death. RHG proteins have been reported to localize to mitochondria, which, in the case of both Reaper and Grim proteins, is mediated by an amphipathic helical domain known as the GH3. Through direct binding, Reaper can bring the Drosophila IAP (DIAP1) to mitochondria, concomitantly promoting IAP auto-ubiquitination and destruction. Whether this localization is sufficient to induce DIAP1 auto-ubiquitination has not been reported. In this study we characterize the interaction between Reaper and the mitochondria using both Xenopus and Drosophila systems. We find that Reaper concentrates on the outer surface of mitochondria in a nonperipheral manner largely mediated by GH3-lipid interactions. Importantly, we show that mitochondrial targeting of DIAP1 alone is not sufficient for degradation and requires Reaper binding. Conversely, Reaper able to bind IAPs, but lacking a mitochondrial targeting GH3 domain (DeltaGH3 Reaper), can induce DIAP1 turnover only if DIAP1 is otherwise targeted to membranes. Surprisingly, targeting DIAP1 to the endoplasmic reticulum instead of mitochondria is partially effective in allowing DeltaGH3 Reaper to promote DIAP1 degradation, suggesting that co-localization of DIAP and Reaper at a membrane surface is critical for the induction of DIAP degradation. Collectively, these data provide a specific function for the GH3 domain in conferring protein-lipid interactions, demonstrate that both Reaper binding and mitochondrial localization are required for accelerated IAP degradation, and suggest that membrane localization per se contributes to DIAP1 auto-ubiquitination and degradation.

Control of Emi2 activity and stability through Mos-mediated recruitment of PP2A.

Before fertilization, vertebrate eggs are arrested in meiosis II by cytostatic factor (CSF), which holds the anaphase-promoting complex (APC) in an inactive state. It was recently reported that Mos, an integral component of CSF, acts in part by promoting the Rsk-mediated phosphorylation of the APC inhibitor Emi2/Erp1. We report here that Rsk phosphorylation of Emi2 promotes its interaction with the protein phosphatase PP2A. Emi2 residues adjacent to the Rsk phosphorylation site were important for PP2A binding. An Emi2 mutant that retained Rsk phosphorylation but lacked PP2A binding could not be modulated by Mos. PP2A bound to Emi2 acted on two distinct clusters of sites phosphorylated by Cdc2, one responsible for modulating its stability during CSF arrest and one that controls binding to the APC. These findings provide a molecular mechanism for Mos action in promoting CSF arrest and also define an unusual mechanism, whereby protein phosphorylation recruits a phosphatase for dephosphorylation of distinct sites phosphorylated by another kinase.

Differential susceptibility of yeast S and M phase CDK complexes to inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation.

BACKGROUND: Several checkpoint pathways employ Wee1-mediated inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) to restrain cell-cycle progression. Whereas in vertebrates this strategy can delay both DNA replication and mitosis, in yeast cells only mitosis is delayed. This is particularly surprising because yeasts, unlike vertebrates, employ a single family of cyclins (B type) and the same CDK to promote both S phase and mitosis. The G2-specific arrest could be explained in two fundamentally different ways: tyrosine phosphorylation of cyclin/CDK complexes could leave sufficient residual activity to promote S phase, or S phase-promoting cyclin/CDK complexes could somehow be protected from checkpoint-induced tyrosine phosphorylation. RESULTS: We demonstrate that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, several cyclin/CDK complexes are protected from inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation, allowing Clb5,6p to promote DNA replication and Clb3,4p to promote spindle assembly, even under checkpoint-inducing conditions that block nuclear division. In vivo, S phase-promoting Clb5p/Cdc28p complexes were phosphorylated more slowly and dephosphorylated more effectively than were mitosis-promoting Clb2p/Cdc28p complexes. Moreover, we show that the CDK inhibitor (CKI) Sic1p protects bound Clb5p/Cdc28p complexes from tyrosine phosphorylation, allowing the accumulation of unphosphorylated complexes that are unleashed when Sic1p is degraded to promote S phase. The vertebrate CKI p27(Kip1) similarly protects Cyclin A/Cdk2 complexes from Wee1, suggesting that the antagonism between CKIs and Wee1 is evolutionarily conserved. CONCLUSIONS: In yeast cells, the combination of CKI binding and preferential phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of different B cyclin/CDK complexes renders S phase progression immune from checkpoints acting via CDK tyrosine phosphorylation.

A role for Cdc2- and PP2A-mediated regulation of Emi2 in the maintenance of CSF arrest.

BACKGROUND: Vertebrate oocytes are arrested in metaphase II of meiosis prior to fertilization by cytostatic factor (CSF). CSF enforces a cell-cycle arrest by inhibiting the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), an E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets Cyclin B for degradation. Although Cyclin B synthesis is ongoing during CSF arrest, constant Cyclin B levels are maintained. To achieve this, oocytes allow continuous slow Cyclin B degradation, without eliminating the bulk of Cyclin B, which would induce release from CSF arrest. However, the mechanism that controls this continuous degradation is not understood. RESULTS: We report here the molecular details of a negative feedback loop wherein Cyclin B promotes its own destruction through Cdc2/Cyclin B-mediated phosphorylation and inhibition of the APC inhibitor Emi2. Emi2 bound to the core APC, and this binding was disrupted by Cdc2/Cyclin B, without affecting Emi2 protein stability. Cdc2-mediated phosphorylation of Emi2 was antagonized by PP2A, which could bind to Emi2 and promote Emi2-APC interactions. CONCLUSIONS: Constant Cyclin B levels are maintained during a CSF arrest through the regulation of Emi2 activity. A balance between Cdc2 and PP2A controls Emi2 phosphorylation, which in turn controls the ability of Emi2 to bind to and inhibit the APC. This balance allows proper maintenance of Cyclin B levels and Cdc2 kinase activity during CSF arrest.

Predicted light scattering from particles observed in human age-related nuclear cataracts using mie scattering theory.

PURPOSE: To employ Mie scattering theory to predict the light-scattering from micrometer-sized particles surrounded by lipid shells, called multilamellar bodies (MLBs), reported in human age-related nuclear cataracts. METHODS: Mie scattering theory is applicable to randomly distributed spherical and globular particles separated by distances much greater than the wavelength of incident light. With an assumed refractive index of 1.40 for nuclear cytoplasm, particle refractive indices from 1.33 to 1.58 were used to calculate scattering efficiencies for particle radii 0.05 to 3 microm and incident light with wavelengths (in vacuo) of 400, 550, and 700 nm. RESULTS: Surface plots of scattering efficiency versus particle radius and refractive index were calculated for coated spherical particles. Pronounced peaks and valleys identified combinations of particle parameters that produce high and low scattering efficiencies. Small particles (<0.3 microm radius) had low scattering efficiency over a wide range of particle refractive indices. Particles with radii 0.6 to 3 microm and refractive indices 0.08 to 0.10 greater (or less) than the surrounding cytoplasm had very high scattering efficiencies. This size range corresponds well to MLBs in cataractous nuclei (average MLB radius, 1.4 microm) and, at an estimated 4000 particles/mm(3) of tissue, up to 18% of the incident light was scattered primarily within a 20 degrees forward cone. CONCLUSIONS: The calculated size of spherical particles that scatter efficiently was close to the observed dimensions of MLBs in cataractous nuclei. Particle refractive indices only 0.02 units different from the surrounding cytoplasm scatter a significant amount of light. These results suggest that the MLBs observed in human age-related nuclear cataracts may be major sources of forward light scattering that reduces contrast of fine details, particularly under dim light.

Role for the PP2A/B56delta phosphatase in regulating 14-3-3 release from Cdc25 to control mitosis.

DNA-responsive checkpoints prevent cell-cycle progression following DNA damage or replication inhibition. The mitotic activator Cdc25 is suppressed by checkpoints through inhibitory phosphorylation at Ser287 (Xenopus numbering) and docking of 14-3-3. Ser287 phosphorylation is a major locus of G2/M checkpoint control, although several checkpoint-independent kinases can phosphorylate this site. We reported previously that mitotic entry requires 14-3-3 removal and Ser287 dephosphorylation. We show here that DNA-responsive checkpoints also activate PP2A/B56delta phosphatase complexes to dephosphorylate Cdc25 at a site distinct from Ser287 (T138), the phosphorylation of which is required for 14-3-3 release. However, phosphorylation of T138 is not sufficient for 14-3-3 release from Cdc25. Our data suggest that creation of a 14-3-3 "sink," consisting of phosphorylated 14-3-3 binding intermediate filament proteins, including keratins, coupled with reduced Cdc25-14-3-3 affinity, contribute to Cdc25 activation. These observations identify PP2A/B56delta as a central checkpoint effector and suggest a mechanism for controlling 14-3-3 interactions to promote mitosis.

A role for PP1 in the Cdc2/Cyclin B-mediated positive feedback activation of Cdc25.

The Cdc25 phosphatase promotes entry into mitosis through the removal of inhibitory phosphorylations on the Cdc2 subunit of the Cdc2/CyclinB complex. During interphase, or after DNA damage, Cdc25 is suppressed by phosphorylation at Ser287 (Xenopus numbering; Ser216 of human Cdc25C) and subsequent binding of the small acidic protein, 14-3-3. As reported recently, at the time of mitotic entry, 14-3-3 protein is removed from Cdc25 and S287 is dephosphorylated by protein phosphatase 1 (PP1). After the initial activation of Cdc25 and consequent derepression of Cdc2/CyclinB, Cdc25 is further activated through a Cdc2-catalyzed positive feedback loop. Although the existence of such a loop has been appreciated for some time, the molecular mechanism for this activation has not been described. We report here that phosphorylation of S285 by Cdc2 greatly enhances recruitment of PP1 to Cdc25, thereby accelerating S287 dephosphorylation and mitotic entry. Moreover, we show that two other previously reported sites of Cdc2-catalyzed phosphorylation on Cdc25 are required for maximal biological activity of Cdc25, but they do not contribute to PP1 regulation and do not act solely through controlling S287 phosphorylation. Therefore, multiple mechanisms, including enhanced recruitment of PP1, are used to promote full activation of Cdc25 at the time of mitotic entry.

Cataract formation in a strain of rats selected for high oxidative stress.

The primary purpose of this study was to define the clinical and morphological features of cataractogenesis in the OXYS strain of rats that generate excess reactive oxygen species. Rats were sequentially examined from birth to the development of mature cataracts with slit lamp biomicroscopy. Morphology of selected stages of cataract development was studied using light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunohistochemical localization of the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) and fluorescent antibody labeling for DNA oxidation products. Lenses from age-matched normal rats were used as controls. OXYS rats developed cataracts as young as two weeks of age with progression to maturity by 1 year. Clinically, cataracts appeared initially either as nuclear or sub-capsular cortical changes and progressed to pronounced nuclear cataracts within months. TEM confirmed the light microscopic impression of region-specific alterations in both fiber cell cytoplasmic protein matrix and membrane structure. The outer adult nuclear region showed extensive cellular damage similar to osmotic cataracts, which is consistent with the postulated high uptake of glucose in the OXYS strain. The adult and outer fetal nuclear cells displayed several types of focal damage. The inner fetal and embryonic nuclear cells demonstrated textured cytoplasm, suggesting protein degradation or redistribution. Staining for HNE was increased in epithelium, cortex and nucleus compared to control lenses. Fluorescent antibody probes demonstrated increased levels of DNA oxidation products in OXYS rat lenses compared to age-matched controls. Fourier analysis of nuclear cytoplasm revealed significant components with corresponding sizes greater than 100 nm and, using a new theoretical approach, the texturing of the cytoplasm was shown to be sufficient to cause opacification of the nucleus. The OXYS rat appears to be an ideal model for oxidative stress cataractogenesis. The potential oxidative damage observed is extensive and characteristic of the developmental region. The source of oxidative damage may in part be a response to elevated levels of glucose. Because oxidative stress is thought to be a major factor in cataract formation in both diabetic and non-diabetic aging humans, this animal model may be a useful tool in assessing efficacy of antioxidant treatments that may slow or prevent cataract formation.

Distribution, spherical structure and predicted Mie scattering of multilamellar bodies in human age-related nuclear cataracts.

PURPOSE: To characterize multilamellar bodies (MLBs), determine their distribution along the optic axis and predict their potential Mie scattering within human age-related nuclear cataracts. Previous studies restricted to the equatorial plane have shown that MLBs are rare spherical objects that are 1-4 microm in diameter and covered by multiple layers of thin lipid-rich membranes. METHODS: Eight human aged transparent lenses were obtained from eye bank donors and eight human age-related nuclear cataracts were obtained immediately after extracapsular extraction. Each sample was Vibratome sectioned fresh into 200 microm thick sections that were fixed and embedded for light or electron microscopy. Light micrograph montages of the optic axis containing the juvenile, fetal and embryonic nuclei were examined. Mie scattering for random coated spherical particles was calculated based on assumed and measured particle parameters. RESULTS: Cells along the optic axis of the cataract contained approximately 7.5 times more MLBs as similar regions of the aged transparent lens, although these MLBs occurred with extremely low frequency. Cells of the aged transparent lens contained 1.3 MLBs mm(-2), while those of the cataract contained 9.6 MLBs mm(-2), which are equivalent to calculated densities of 5.6 x 10(2) and 4.1 x 10(3)mm(-3), respectively. While some MLBs were located within the cytoplasm near cell membranes, others were found away from membranes. The MLBs are distinct from circular profiles resulting from finger-like projections between adjacent cells. MLBs displayed varying geometries and cytoplasmic textures, although predominately spherical with interiors similar to adjacent fiber cell cytoplasm. These results are in agreement with previous theoretical analysis of light scattering from human lenses and with previous morphological studies examining the equatorial plane of the lens. Potential Mie scattering of spherical particles with the average properties of the observed MLBs and assumed refractive index properties was calculated to be forward scattering of as much as 20% of the incident light. CONCLUSIONS: The observed low frequency and absence of clustering of MLBs in the equatorial plane and along the optic axis suggests that MLBs are most likely uniformly distributed throughout the embryonic, fetal and juvenile nuclei of age-related cataracts. Because of their size, distribution, textured cytoplasm and calculated Mie scattering, MLBs probably cause local fluctuations in refractive index in human lens nuclei and, therefore, are potential sources of low-angle, forward light scattering that could impair image formation.