Tb1, a Neurotoxin from Tityus bahiensis Scorpion Venom, Induces Epileptic Seizures by Increasing Glutamate Release.

Here, we report the neurotoxic effects aroused by the intracerebral injection (in rats) of Tb1, which is a neurotoxin isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom. Biochemical analyses have demonstrated that this toxin is similar to the gamma toxin from T. serrulatus, which is a ß-scorpion toxin that acts on sodium channels, causing the activation process to occur at more hyperpolarized membrane voltages. Male Wistar rats were stereotaxically implanted with intrahippocampal electrodes and cannulas for electroencephalographic recording and the evaluation of amino acid neurotransmitters levels. Treated animals displayed behavioral and electroencephalographic alterations similar to epileptiform activities, such as myoclonus, wet dog shakes, convulsion, strong discharges, neuronal loss, and increased intracerebral levels of glutamate. Scorpion toxins are important pharmacological tools that are widely employed in ion channel dysregulation studies. The current work contributes to the understanding of channelopathies, particularly epilepsy, which may originate, among other events, from dysfunctional sodium channels, which are the main target of the Tb1 toxin.

Tb1, a neurotoxin from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom, induces epileptic seizures by increasing glutamate release

Here, we report the neurotoxic effects aroused by the intracerebral injection (in rats) of Tb1, which is a neurotoxin isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom. Biochemical analyses have demonstrated that this toxin is similar to the gamma toxin from T. serrulatus, which is a ß-scorpion toxin that acts on sodium channels, causing the activation process to occur at more hyperpolarized membrane voltages. Male Wistar rats were stereotaxically implanted with intrahippocampal electrodes and cannulas for electroencephalographic recording and the evaluation of amino acid neurotransmitters levels. Treated animals displayed behavioral and electroencephalographic alterations similar to epileptiform activities, such as myoclonus, wet dog shakes, convulsion, strong discharges, neuronal loss, and increased intracerebral levels of glutamate. Scorpion toxins are important pharmacological tools that are widely employed in ion channel dysregulation studies. The current work contributes to the understanding of channelopathies, particularly epilepsy, which may originate, among other events, from dysfunctional sodium channels, which are the main target of the Tb1 toxin

Tb1, a neurotoxin from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom, induces epileptic seizures by increasing glutamate release

Here, we report the neurotoxic effects aroused by the intracerebral injection (in rats) of Tb1, which is a neurotoxin isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom. Biochemical analyses have demonstrated that this toxin is similar to the gamma toxin from T. serrulatus, which is a ß-scorpion toxin that acts on sodium channels, causing the activation process to occur at more hyperpolarized membrane voltages. Male Wistar rats were stereotaxically implanted with intrahippocampal electrodes and cannulas for electroencephalographic recording and the evaluation of amino acid neurotransmitters levels. Treated animals displayed behavioral and electroencephalographic alterations similar to epileptiform activities, such as myoclonus, wet dog shakes, convulsion, strong discharges, neuronal loss, and increased intracerebral levels of glutamate. Scorpion toxins are important pharmacological tools that are widely employed in ion channel dysregulation studies. The current work contributes to the understanding of channelopathies, particularly epilepsy, which may originate, among other events, from dysfunctional sodium channels, which are the main target of the Tb1 toxin

Effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system

In Brazil, the scorpion species responsible for most severe incidents belong to the Tityus genus and, among this group, T. serrulatus, T. bahiensis, T. stigmurus and T. obscurus are the most dangerous ones. Other species such as T. metuendus, T. silvestres, T. brazilae, T. confluens, T. costatus, T. fasciolatus and T. neglectus are also found in the country, but the incidence and severity of accidents caused by them are lower. The main effects caused by scorpion venoms - such as myocardial damage, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema and shock - are mainly due to the release of mediators from the autonomic nervous system. On the other hand, some evidence show the participation of the central nervous system and inflammatory response in the process. The participation of the central nervous system in envenoming has always been questioned. Some authors claim that the central effects would be a consequence of peripheral stimulation and would be the result, not the cause, of the envenoming process. Because, they say, at least in adult individuals, the venom would be unable to cross the blood-brain barrier. In contrast, there is some evidence showing the direct participation of the central nervous system in the envenoming process. This review summarizes the major findings on the effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system, both clinically and experimentally. Most of the studies have been performed with T. serrulatus and T. bahiensis. Little information is available regarding the other Brazilian Tityus species.

Tb II-I, a fraction isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom, alters cytokines': level and induces seizures when intrahippocampally injected in rats

Scorpion venoms are composed of several substances with different pharmacological activities. Neurotoxins exert their effects by targeting ion channels resulting in toxic effects to mammals, insects and crustaceans. Tb II-I, a fraction isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom, was investigated for its ability to induce neurological and immune-inflammatory effects. Two putative -sodium channel toxins were identified in this fraction, Tb2 II and Tb 4, the latter having been completely sequenced by mass spectrometry. Male Wistar rats, stereotaxically implanted with intrahippocampal cannulas and electrodes, were injected with Tb II-I (2 mu g/2 mu L) via the intrahippocampal route. The behavior, electrographic activity and cellular integrity of the animals were analyzed and the intracerebral level of cytokines determined. Tb II-I injection induced seizures and damage in the hippocampus. These alterations were correlated with the changes in the level of the cytokines tumoral necrosis factor- (TNF-) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Therefore, the binding of Tb II-I to its target in the central nervous system may induce inflammation resulting in neuropathological and behavioral alterations.

Effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system

In Brazil, the scorpion species responsible for most severe incidents belong to the Tityus genus and, among this group, T. serrulatus, T. bahiensis, T. stigmurus and T. obscurus are the most dangerous ones. Other species such as T. metuendus, T. silvestres, T. brazilae, T. confluens, T. costatus, T. fasciolatus and T. neglectus are also found in the country, but the incidence and severity of accidents caused by them are lower. The main effects caused by scorpion venoms - such as myocardial damage, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema and shock - are mainly due to the release of mediators from the autonomic nervous system. On the other hand, some evidence show the participation of the central nervous system and inflammatory response in the process. The participation of the central nervous system in envenoming has always been questioned. Some authors claim that the central effects would be a consequence of peripheral stimulation and would be the result, not the cause, of the envenoming process. Because, they say, at least in adult individuals, the venom would be unable to cross the blood-brain barrier. In contrast, there is some evidence showing the direct participation of the central nervous system in the envenoming process. This review summarizes the major findings on the effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system, both clinically and experimentally. Most of the studies have been performed with T. serrulatus and T. bahiensis. Little information is available regarding the other Brazilian Tityus species.

Tb II-I, a fraction isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom, alters cytokines': level and induces seizures when intrahippocampally injected in rats

Scorpion venoms are composed of several substances with different pharmacological activities. Neurotoxins exert their effects by targeting ion channels resulting in toxic effects to mammals, insects and crustaceans. Tb II-I, a fraction isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom, was investigated for its ability to induce neurological and immune-inflammatory effects. Two putative -sodium channel toxins were identified in this fraction, Tb2 II and Tb 4, the latter having been completely sequenced by mass spectrometry. Male Wistar rats, stereotaxically implanted with intrahippocampal cannulas and electrodes, were injected with Tb II-I (2 mu g/2 mu L) via the intrahippocampal route. The behavior, electrographic activity and cellular integrity of the animals were analyzed and the intracerebral level of cytokines determined. Tb II-I injection induced seizures and damage in the hippocampus. These alterations were correlated with the changes in the level of the cytokines tumoral necrosis factor- (TNF-) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Therefore, the binding of Tb II-I to its target in the central nervous system may induce inflammation resulting in neuropathological and behavioral alterations.

Effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system

In Brazil, the scorpion species responsible for most severe incidents belong to the Tityus genus and, among this group, T. serrulatus, T. bahiensis, T. stigmurus and T. obscurus are the most dangerous ones. Other species such as T. metuendus, T. silvestres, T. brazilae, T. confluens, T. costatus, T. fasciolatus and T. neglectus are also found in the country, but the incidence and severity of accidents caused by them are lower. The main effects caused by scorpion venoms - such as myocardial damage, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema and shock - are mainly due to the release of mediators from the autonomic nervous system. On the other hand, some evidence show the participation of the central nervous system and inflammatory response in the process. The participation of the central nervous system in envenoming has always been questioned. Some authors claim that the central effects would be a consequence of peripheral stimulation and would be the result, not the cause, of the envenoming process. Because, they say, at least in adult individuals, the venom would be unable to cross the blood-brain barrier. In contrast, there is some evidence showing the direct participation of the central nervous system in the envenoming process. This review summarizes the major findings on the effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system, both clinically and experimentally. Most of the studies have been performed with T. serrulatus and T. bahiensis. Little information is available regarding the other Brazilian Tityus species.

Effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system

In Brazil, the scorpion species responsible for most severe incidents belong to the Tityus genus and, among this group, T. serrulatus, T. bahiensis, T. stigmurus and T. obscurus are the most dangerous ones. Other species such as T. metuendus, T. silvestres, T. brazilae, T. confluens, T. costatus, T. fasciolatus and T. neglectus are also found in the country, but the incidence and severity of accidents caused by them are lower. The main effects caused by scorpion venoms - such as myocardial damage, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema and shock - are mainly due to the release of mediators from the autonomic nervous system. On the other hand, some evidence show the participation of the central nervous system and inflammatory response in the process. The participation of the central nervous system in envenoming has always been questioned. Some authors claim that the central effects would be a consequence of peripheral stimulation and would be the result, not the cause, of the envenoming process. Because, they say, at least in adult individuals, the venom would be unable to cross the blood-brain barrier. In contrast, there is some evidence showing the direct participation of the central nervous system in the envenoming process. This review summarizes the major findings on the effects of Brazilian scorpion venoms on the central nervous system, both clinically and experimentally. Most of the studies have been performed with T. serrulatus and T. bahiensis. Little information is available regarding the other Brazilian Tityus species.(AU)

Avaliação dos efeitos neurotóxicos da injeção intrahipocampal de três toxinas isoladas do veneno do escorpião Tityus bahiensis / Assessment of the neurotoxic effects the intrahippocampal injection of three toxins isolated from Tityus bahiensis scorpion venom

In Brazil, the scorpions of the genus Tityus belonging to the Buthidae family are the main responsible for serious accidents. Among them there are Tityus serrulatus and Tityus bahiensis; due to the high number of accidents they cause, they are considered of greater clinical importance. However, there are few studies on the action of the venom of T. bahiensis mainly in the central nervous system, even this venom presenting an important neurotoxic action. The neurotoxins are considered the main toxic elements of the venom, and among those already described, ion channels (sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride) are considered their main targets of action. The action of some of these toxins produces behavioral, electrographic and histopathological changes due to the alteration in the brain concentration of neurotransmitters. Therefore, the aim of our study was to evaluate the possible neurotoxic effects of three toxins from the venom of the scorpion on the hippocampus of rats, by evaluating the behavioral and electroencephaographic activity, and to evaluate possible changes on the levels of neurotransmitters and integrity of hippocampal neurons after intrahippocampal injection of the toxins. Thus, T. bahiensis scorpion venom was fractionated by gel filtration (Sephadex G25) into 5 fractions. The fraction that showed a higher activity on the tested model was chromatographed on HPLC generating 3 peaks (toxins Tb II-I, Tb II-II and Tb II-III), which had tested their activities on experimental models. Male Wistar rats used as experimental subjects were submitted to a stereotactic surgery for the implantation of cannulae and / or electrodes in the hippocampus. The animals were evaluated for behavioral activity, brain and neuronal integrity (histological sections of hippocampal tissue examined by an optical microscope for quantification of cells in the CA1, CA3 and CA4 areas) after injection of toxins. Microdialysis samples were collected for measurement of neurotransmitters that were performed on HPLC. The results show that the toxins induced behavioral (prostration, respiratory difficult, limited mobility, increased secretion, myoclonus and wet dog shake) electroencephalographic spikes and discharges) and histological alterations (cell death in the hippocampal CA1, CA3 and CA4 regions). More specifically in relation to Tb II-II, it was able to alter the levels of the neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA. Administration of glutamatergic antagonists AP-5 and MK-801 prior of injection of Tb II-II showed that this toxin acts on glutamate receptors, more effectively on non-NMDA type receptors, since the action of MK-801 in relation Tb II-II was more effective at blocking the onset of some behavioral, electroencephalographic and histopathological changes in comparison to the AP-5. With these results we can conclude that the three toxins were able to make changes on behavioral, electroencephalographic and histopathological parameters, and the action of Tb II-II is primarily a result of increased release of glutamate that generally seems to be more strongly linked to its action on glutamatergic non-NMDA -type receptors.

No Brasil, os escorpiões do gênero Tityus pertencentes à família Buthidae são os principais causadores de acidentes graves. Entre eles destacam-se o Tityus serrulatus e o Tityus bahiensis devido ao alto número de acidentes que causam tornando-os os de maior importância médica. Contudo, poucos são os estudos sobre a ação do veneno do T. bahiensis principalmente no sistema nervoso central, mesmo esse veneno apresentando uma importante ação neurotóxica. As neurotoxinas são consideradas os principais elementos tóxicos desses venenos, sendo que entre as já descritas, os canais iônicos (sódio, potássio, cálcio e cloreto) são considerados os seus principais alvos de ação. A ação de algumas dessas toxinas produz alterações comportamentais, eletrográficas e histopatológicas por alterar as concentrações cerebrais de neurotransmissores. Portanto, o objetivo do nosso trabalho foi avaliar os possíveis efeitos neurotóxico de três toxinas isoladas do veneno do escorpião Tityus bahiensis sobre o hipocampo de ratos, por meio da avaliação das atividades comportamentais e elétrica cerebral, além de avaliar possíveis alterações sobre os níveis de neurotransmissores e a integridade dos neurônios hipocampais, após injeção intrahipocampal das toxinas. Para tanto, o veneno do escorpião T. bahiensis foi fracionado por Gel Filtração (Sephadex G25) formando 5 frações. A fração que apresentou maior atividade sobre o modelo testado foi cromatografada em HPLC gerando 3 picos isolados (toxina Tb II-I, Tb II-II e Tb II-III), os quais tiveram suas atividades testadas sobre os modelos experimentais. Como sujeitos experimentais utilizamos ratos Wistar machos, submetidos à cirurgia estereotáxica para a implantação de cânulas ou/e eletrodos no hipocampo. Os animais foram avaliados quanto à atividade comportamental, elétrica cerebral e integridade neuronal (cortes histológico do tecido hipocampal analisados em microscópio óptico para quantificação das células nas áreas CA1, CA3 e CA4), após injeção das toxinas. Por microdiálise foram coletadas as amostras para dosagem de neurotransmissores que foram realizadas em HPLC. Os resultados demonstram que as três toxinas promoveram alterações sobre parâmetros comportamentais (prostração, dificuldade respiratória e locomotora, mioclonia, “wet dog shake” e convulsão), eletrográficos (espículas e descargas epileptiformes) e histopatológicos (morte de células nas regiões CA1, CA3 e CA4). Em relação à Tb IIII, essa foi capaz de alterar os níveis dos neurotransmissores Glutamato e GABA. O uso dos antagonistas de glutamato AP-5 e MK-801 antes da injeção da Tb II-II mostrou que essa age em receptores glutamatérgico, de maneira mais efetiva sobre os receptores do tipo não NMDA, já que a ação do MK-801 em relação a Tb II-II foi mais efetiva em bloquear o surgimento de algumas alterações comportamentais, eletrográficas e histopatológicas em comparação com o AP-5. Com esses resultados podemos concluir que as três toxinas foram capazes de promover alterações sobre parâmetros comportamentais, eletrográficos e histopatológicos, sendo que a ação da Tb II-II é resultado prioritariamente do aumento da liberação de glutamato que de maneira geral parece estar mais intensamente ligado a sua ação sobre receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo não NMDA.