ABSTRACT
Alzheimer's disease (AD) and type 2 diabetes appear to share similar pathogenic mechanisms. dsRNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) underlies peripheral insulin resistance in metabolic disorders. PKR phosphorylates eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α-P), and AD brains exhibit elevated phospho-PKR and eIF2α-P levels. Whether and how PKR and eIF2α-P participate in defective brain insulin signaling and cognitive impairment in AD are unknown. We report that ß-amyloid oligomers, AD-associated toxins, activate PKR in a tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)-dependent manner, resulting in eIF2α-P, neuronal insulin receptor substrate (IRS-1) inhibition, synapse loss, and memory impairment. Brain phospho-PKR and eIF2α-P were elevated in AD animal models, including monkeys given intracerebroventricular oligomer infusions. Oligomers failed to trigger eIF2α-P and cognitive impairment in PKR(-/-) and TNFR1(-/-) mice. Bolstering insulin signaling rescued phospho-PKR and eIF2α-P. Results reveal pathogenic mechanisms shared by AD and diabetes and establish that proinflammatory signaling mediates oligomer-induced IRS-1 inhibition and PKR-dependent synapse and memory loss.
Subject(s)
Amyloid beta-Peptides/toxicity , Brain/drug effects , Insulin Receptor Substrate Proteins/metabolism , Polymers/toxicity , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/metabolism , eIF-2 Kinase/metabolism , Alzheimer Disease/metabolism , Alzheimer Disease/pathology , Amyloid beta-Peptides/chemistry , Animals , Brain/metabolism , Disease Models, Animal , Haplorhini/metabolism , Hypoglycemic Agents/pharmacology , Insulin Receptor Substrate Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Memory Disorders/metabolism , Memory Disorders/pathology , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Neurons/drug effects , Neurons/metabolism , Phosphorylation/drug effects , Polymers/chemistry , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/deficiency , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/genetics , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/metabolism , Signal Transduction/drug effects , Synapses/drug effects , Synapses/metabolism , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/antagonists & inhibitors , eIF-2 Kinase/deficiency , eIF-2 Kinase/geneticsABSTRACT
2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) is a neuroprotective compound previously shown to promote neuronal differentiation in a neuroblastoma cell line and neurite outgrowth in primary neurons. Here, we tested the hypothesis that DNP could induce neurogenesis in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Murine ESCs, grown as embryoid bodies (EBs), were exposed to 20 µM DNP (or vehicle) for 4 days. Significant increases in the proportion of nestin- and ß-tubulin III-positive cells were detected after EB exposure to DNP, accompanied by enhanced glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) and ATP-linked oxygen consumption, thought to mediate DNP-induced neural differentiation. DNP further protected ESCs from cell death, as indicated by reduced caspase-3 positive cells, and increased proliferation. Cell migration from EBs was significantly higher in DNP-treated EBs, and migrating cells were positive for nestin, ß-tubulin III and MAP2, similar to that observed with retinoic acid (RA)-treated EBs. Compared to RA, however, DNP exerted a marked neuritogenic effect on differentiating ESCs, increasing the average length and number of neurites per cell. Results establish that DNP induces neural differentiation of ESCs, accompanied by cell proliferation, migration and neuritogenesis, suggesting that DNP may be a novel tool to induce neurogenesis in embryonic stem cells.
Subject(s)
2,4-Dinitrophenol/pharmacology , Embryoid Bodies/drug effects , Embryonic Stem Cells/drug effects , Neurogenesis/drug effects , Neurons/cytology , 2,4-Dinitrophenol/chemistry , Animals , Cell Differentiation , Cell Line , Cell Movement , Cell Proliferation , Embryoid Bodies/cytology , Embryoid Bodies/metabolism , Embryonic Stem Cells/cytology , Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein , Mice , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1/metabolism , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/metabolism , Nerve Tissue Proteins/metabolism , Nestin/metabolism , Neurons/metabolism , Oxygen Consumption , Tretinoin/pharmacology , Tubulin/metabolismABSTRACT
Cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease (AD) is increasingly attributed to the neuronal impact of soluble oligomers of the amyloid-ß peptide (AßOs). Current knowledge on the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the toxicity of AßOs stems largely from rodent-derived cell/tissue culture experiments or from transgenic models of AD, which do not necessarily recapitulate the complexity of the human disease. Here, we used DNA microarray and RT-PCR to investigate changes in transcription in adult human cortical slices exposed to sublethal doses of AßOs. The results revealed a set of 27 genes that showed consistent differential expression upon exposure of slices from three different donors to AßOs. Functional classification of differentially expressed genes revealed that AßOs impact pathways important for neuronal physiology and known to be dysregulated in AD, including vesicle trafficking, cell adhesion, actin cytoskeleton dynamics, and insulin signaling. Most genes (70%) were down-regulated by AßO treatment, suggesting a predominantly inhibitory effect on the corresponding pathways. Significantly, AßOs induced down-regulation of synaptophysin, a presynaptic vesicle membrane protein, suggesting a mechanism by which oligomers cause synapse failure. The results provide insight into early mechanisms of pathogenesis of AD and suggest that the neuronal pathways affected by AßOs may be targets for the development of novel diagnostic or therapeutic approaches.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/metabolism , Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism , Brain/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation , Nerve Tissue Proteins/biosynthesis , Adult , Alzheimer Disease/diagnosis , Alzheimer Disease/pathology , Alzheimer Disease/therapy , Brain/pathology , Female , Gene Expression Profiling , Humans , Male , Oligonucleotide Array Sequence AnalysisABSTRACT
2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) is classically known as a mitochondrial uncoupler and, at high concentrations, is toxic to a variety of cells. However, it has recently been shown that, at subtoxic concentrations, DNP protects neurons against a variety of insults and promotes neuronal differentiation and neuritogenesis. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the beneficial neuroactive properties of DNP are still largely unknown. We have now used DNA microarray analysis to investigate changes in gene expression in rat hippocampal neurons in culture treated with low micromolar concentrations of DNP. Under conditions that did not affect neuronal viability, high-energy phosphate levels or mitochondrial oxygen consumption, DNP induced up-regulation of 275 genes and down-regulation of 231 genes. Significantly, several up-regulated genes were linked to intracellular cAMP signaling, known to be involved in neurite outgrowth, synaptic plasticity, and neuronal survival. Differential expression of specific genes was validated by quantitative RT-PCR using independent samples. Results shed light on molecular mechanisms underlying neuroprotection by DNP and point to possible targets for development of novel therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders.
